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LIVES 

OF  SEVENTY  OF  THE  MOST  EMINENT 

PAINTERS,  SCULPTORS,  AND 
ARCHITECTS 

VOLUME  I. 


LIVES  OF  SEVENTY 

OF  THE  MOST  EMINENT 

PAINTERS,  SCULPTORS 

AND 

ARCHITECTS 

BY 

GIORGIO  VASARI 

EDITED  AND  ANNOTATED   IN  THE   LIGHT  OF   RECENT  DISCOVERIES 

BY 

E.  H.  AND  E.  W.  BLASHFIELD 

AND 

A.  A.  HOPKINS 


VOLUME  I. 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

MDCCCXCVII 


Copyright,  1896,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


TROW  DIRECTORY 
PRINTING  AND  BOOKBINOINQ  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


PEEFACE 


Vasari's  Lives  are  the  most  important  contribution  ever 
made  to  the  history  of  Italian  art,  and  no  annotated  Eng- 
lish edition  of  them  has  appeared  since  the  year  1850.  This 
in  itself  is  excuse  enough  for  the  present  work.  In  1885  a 
single  volume  of  notes,  by  Dr.  Richter,  was  added  to  the 
five-volume  edition  of  Mrs.  Foster^s  translation.  But  as 
these  notes  covered  the  entire  series  of  Lives,"  necessarily 
but  a  modicum  of  the  results  of  modern  methods  of  study 
and  research  could  be  covered  by  them.  The  editors  of 
the  present  edition  have  preferred  to  choose  among  biog- 
raphies rather  than  to  limit  the  number  of  the  notes,  be- 
lieving that  a  relatively  complete  annotation  of  the  most  im- 
portant "Lives"  was  desirable. 

Many  of  Vasari^s  "  Lives"  are  valuable,  but  their  dilfer- 
ence  in  value  is  great,  arising  at  once  from  the  inherent  in- 
terest of  tlie  biographies  and  the  relative  importance  of  the 
artists.  Selection  is  a  delicate  matter  and  is  always  open 
to  criticism  from  any  special  point  of  view.  The  student 
of  archaBology  or  manners  may  find  much  to  interest  him  in 
the  biographies  of  men  whose  artistic  productions  were  com- 
paratively valueless.  The  editors  have  taken  these  consid- 
erations into  account,  and  in  most  cases  have  based  their 
selection  upon  the  relative  importance  of  the  artists  in  the 
evolution  of  Italian  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting. 

Fortunately  the  "Lives"  which  possess  the  finest  literary 
quality,  which  manifest  most  clearly  the  sympathetic  in- 
sight, impartiality,  and  critical  faculty  of  Vasari,  are  also 
those  devoted  to  the  most  celebrated  artists.  Many  among 
these  biographies,  those,  for  instance,  of  Donatello,  Brun- 


vi 


PKEFACE 


elleschi,  Angelico,  Leonardo,  Raphael,  and  Michelangelo, 
would  have  sufficed  in  any  one  case  to  make  their  author 
famous.  This  fact  has  simplified  the  task  of  the  editors  and 
enabled  them,  in  four  volumes,  to  present  not  only  all  the 
best  of  Vasari^s  biographies,  but  the  material  most  valuable 
to  the  modern  art-student  as  well. 

As  to  the  rendering  of  Vasari^s  original  Italian  text  into 
English,  the  editors  have  decided  to  use  the  translation  of 
Mrs.  Jonathan  Foster :  first,  because  her  text,  while  direct 
and  simple,  has  a  quaint  flavor  of  archaism  peculiarly 
adapted  to  a  rendering  of  sixteenth-century  diction  which 
it  would  be  difficult  for  the  writer  of  to-day,  influenced  by 
modern  art  literature,  accustomed  to  the  use  of  art  terms  and 
technical  expressions,  to  imitate  without  affectation ;  sec- 
ondly, because  it  was  through  this  translation  that  Vasari 
was  first  made  known  to  the  English-reading  public.  It  is 
Mrs.  Foster^s  work  that  is  quoted,  cited,  and  referred  to  by 
English  writers.  In  few  instances  have  author  and  trans- 
lator become  more  closely  identified. 

A  careful  reading  of  Mrs.  Foster's  rendering  shows  that  it 
is  in  part,  at  least,  cabinet-work.  Sometimes  misinterpre- 
tations of  the  author  arise  from  the  fact  that  she  had  not 
seen  and  examined  the  picture  or  relief  described  ;  occasion- 
ally there  is  a  misreading  of  some  technical  term ;  some- 
times, too,  she  mistranslates,  and  some  score  of  textual 
corrections  have  been  added  as  foot-notes  in  the  present 
volumes ;  but  on  the  whole  her  work  was  admirable,  and 
the  editors  regret  that  through  lack  of  space  they  cannot  say 
more  of  this  English  lady  who,  half  a  century  ago,  had  the 
courage  and  enthusiasm  to  attempt  such  a  task,  and  having 
attempted,  accomplished  it  with  so  much  thoroughness,  sin- 
cerity, and  felicity. 

It  is  in  view  of  the  great  changes  that  have  taken  place  in 
the  methods  of  art  study  and  investigation  during  the  last 
forty  years  that  the  present  work  has  been  undertaken. 
Since  1850  the  literature  of  art  has  been  revolutionized ; 
criticism  has  become  sceptical  and  scientific,  works  of  art 


PEEFACE 


vii 


are  no  longer  admired  with  the  eye  of  faith,  but  are  scruti- 
nized with  the  magnifying-glass  of  inquiry;  systematized 
investigation  has  revealed  many  data  unknown  to  the  older 
writers.  Minute  observation,  close  reasoning,  and  documen- 
tary evidence  have  replaced  the  poetic  descriptions,  the 
dithyrambic  raptures,  and  the  fierce  invectives  of  the  early 
school  of  art  critics  ;  intensity  of  emotion  is  no  longer  ac- 
cepted as  a  substitute  for  exact  knowledge,  or  fervid  elo- 
quence as  an  equivalent  for  study.  The  best  art  criticism 
has  ceased  to  be  merely  the  literary  expression  of  a  transient 
effect  produced  on  the  spectator  by  a  painting  or  a  statue, 
and  the  artists  themselves  have  written  much  that  is  en- 
lightening regarding  their  own  processes.  Taine's  PMlo- 
sopliie  de  VArt,  his  Voyage  en  Italie,  his  comparative  and 
historical  method  have  become  the  common  property  of  all 
students.  Libraries,  archives,  family  papers,  state  docu- 
ments, private  collections  have  yielded  rich  harvests  to  the 
investigators.  Finally,  the  analytical  and  comparative  sys- 
tem of  Morelli,  the  close  comparison  of  one  picture  with 
another  which  photography  has  made  easy,  the  minute  ex- 
amination of  canvas  or  marble,  inch  by  inch  and  bit  by  bit, 
the  strict  scrutiny  of  details  which  once  passed  relatively 
unperceived,  the  inspection  of  media  and  materials,  the 
work  of  art  considered  as  an  object  of  scientific  investiga- 
tion, in  a  word,  the  processes  of  what  has  been  called  the 

detective  school "  of  art  criticism  have  greatly  increased 
the  labors  of  the  actual  student.  Art  literature  has  passed 
through  its  ages  of  faith,  of  personal  inspiration,  and  has 
now  entered  into  its  age  of  inquiry. 

This  scientific  research  has  profoundly  modified  the  value 
of  the  notes  to  Mrs.  Foster's  Vasari  since  their  publication 
in  1850.  Not  only  have  scores  of  lost "  works  of  art  been 
found  or  accounted  for,  but  the  attributions  of  others  have 
been  changed,  and  documentary  evidence  has  taken  from 
some  artists  and  given  to  others.  Orgagna  has  lost  the 
Loggia  de'  Lanzi,  and  Gaddi  the  Ponte  Vecchio,  while  of 
late  Signor  Domenico  Gnoli  has  even  deprived  Bramante  of 


viii 


PREFACE 


the  famous  Cancelleria  Palace,  and  the  same  author  has 
nearly  doubled  our  knowledge  of  Mi  no  of  Fiesole.  The 
frescoes  of  Castiglione  d^  Olona  have  been  discovered,  and 
have  been  a  fruitful  source  of  controversy  between  various 
students  of  Masolino  and  Masaccio ;  Pinturicchio  and  the 
young  Raphael  have  in  like  manner  shared  disputed  works ; 
important  reconstructions  have  been  made  of  monuments 
which  had  lain  for  centuries  dispersed  piecemeal  about 
churches  or  in  forgotten  crypts,  for  instance  the  altar  of  Do- 
natello  at  Padua  or  the  Cantorie  of  the  Florentine  Duomo  ; 
builders  have  stumbled  upon  walled-up  bas-reliefs,  careless 
hands  scraping  the  plaster  have  found  precious  frescoes  under- 
neath— witness  the  Villa  Lemmi  paintings  now  in  the  Louvre 
— and  careful  hands  have  uncovered  other  wall-pictures, 
whose  presence  beneath  the  white-wash  had  been  traced  or 
suspected  ;  expert  knowledge  and  mechanical  skill  of  every 
kind  have  grown,  pigments  have  been  analyzed,  the  camera 
has  detected  unnoticed  signatures,  panel  pictures  which  were 
rotting  away  have  had  a  new  existence  accorded  them  upon 
canvas,  and  huge  mural  paintings  have  been  sawn  from  tlie 
walls  and  transferred  as  if  they  were  no  larger  than  the  altar- 
piece  of  an  oratory. 

Not  only  the  works  but  the  artists  have  been  the  subject 
of  documentary  investigation,  and  more  than  one  story 
born  of  gossip  and  perpetuated  by  Vasari  has  been  contra- 
dicted or  modified  by  the  evidence  of  the  archives.  Filippo 
Lippi  is  no  longer  the  gay  rake,  the  wanton  betrayer  of  the 
nun  Lucrezia,  refusing  the  papal  permission  to  marry  her, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  appears  as  a  man  who  gave  up  his 
ecclesiastical  benefices  and  lived  poor  that  he  might  profit 
by  the  dispensation  of  the  Vatican  and  make  Lucrezia 
his  wife.  Grave  doubts  are  cast  upon  the  accusation  of 
embezzlement  made  against  Andrea  del  Sarto  ;  Perugino, 
the  atheistical  miser  of  Vasari,  figures  in  the  documents 
as  a  generous  giver,  bestowing  time  and  work  upon  re- 
ligious confraternities  for  little  or  no  pay,  while  Andrea 
dal  Castagno,  who  for  four  centuries  has  been  held  up  as 


PREFACE 


ix 


the  assassin  of  Domenico  Veneziano,  and  as  one  who  showed 
in  every  picture  the  evidence  of  that  natural  ferocity  which 
prompted  to  murder,  is  now  proved  to  have  died  several 
years  before  his  supposed  victim.  These  are  but  a  few  ex- 
amples of  the  many  modifications  which  documentary  and 
other  research  have  brought  to  the  pages  of  art  history 
through  the  thought  and  study  of  a  group  of  archaeologists, 
students,  and  critics.  These  men,  whose  scholarship  is  only 
equalled  by  their  disinterested  devotion  to  a  cause  that  could 
yield  no  return  in  any  way  commensurate  with  the  effort 
expended,  have  come  from  Germany  and  France,  England 
and  America,  and  even  from  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Russia, 
— most  frequently,  however,  from  Italy  itself.  They  have 
searched  those  endless  and  wonderful  sealed  documents  in 
the  Archivio  of  Siena,  the  papers  that  pack  the  archives  of 
the  Florentine  Uffizi,  the  letters,  and  parchments  in  the 
public,  and  in  many  of  the  private  records  of  half  the 
little  towns  of  Italy.  In  the  numbing  cold  of  the  Tuscan 
mountain  cities,  or  in  the  damp  winters  of  Lombardy,  they 
have  sat  in  the  vast  frigid  stone  halls,  wearing  out  eyesight 
and  patience  in  the  deciphering  of  crabbed  writing,  separat- 
ing the  wheat  from  the  chaff,  and  expending  almost  endless 
effort  in  the  rectification  of  a  single  date  or  the  collection 
of  evidence  collateral  to  this  or  that  theory. 

Nor  has  Italy  been  the  only  field  ;  in  the  National  Gallery 
of  London,  the  Louvre,  the  collections  of  Berlin,  Munich, 
Dresden,  and  Vienna;  even  in  the  far  north  men  have 
studied,  turning  from  picture  or  relief  to  the  great  national 
libraries,  and  have  published  the  results  of  their  investiga- 
tions in  finely  illustrated  monographs  or  annuaries.  Other 
men  have  travelled  east,  west,  north,  and  south,  in  these 
latter  days,  calling  photography  to  their  aid  and  estab- 
lishing comparisons  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  student. 
England  was  one  of  the  first  among  the  nations  to  admire 
and  study  the  work  of  the  old  Italian  masters,  and  Sir 
Joshua's  cultus  for  Michelangelo  and  Titian  antedates 
the  enthusiasm  of  Goethe's  Reise,  Lessing's  Laocbon,  and 


X 


PREFACE 


Winckelmann's  study  of  classic  art.  These  great  Germans 
in  their  turn  have  been  followed  by  a  whole  battalion  of 
learned  doctors,  who  have  brought  to  their  task  the  true 
Teutonic  spirit  of  thoroughness  and  devotion  to  research. 
The  French,  with  their  sympathy  for  plastic  art,  and  above 
all  by  their  genius  of  presentation  of  subject,  have  given 
us,  perhaps,  the  most  intelligible,  the  most  consultable,  and 
the  most  enlightening  of  art  books.  For  a  long  time  Italians 
were  reproached  with  having  devoted  but  relatively  little 
study  to  their  masters,  of  having  rather  been  satisfied  with 
possession  and  unmindful  of  appreciation,  but  within  twenty 
years  such  an  impulse  to  art  study  has  been  given  and  sus- 
tained by  natives  of  the  Peninsula  that  to-day  Italians  stand 
in  the  very  front  rank  of  art  investigators. 

In  the  publishing  of  periodicals  devoted  to  art  the  na- 
tions go  hand  in  hand  as  well  as  in  the  possession  of  im- 
portant and  frequently  revised  catalogues  of  their  great 
museums.  The  admirable  Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts,  which 
presents  every  form  of  art,  from  the  Pyramids  to  the  latest 
phase  exhibited  at  the  Champ  de  Mars ;  the  sumptuously 
illustrated  Jahrluch  of  the  Prussian  galleries,  the  equally 
sumptuous  Austrian  Annuary,  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Mldende 
Kilnsty  Die  Graphischen  Kiinste,  the  Repertorium  fur 
Kunstwissenscliaft ;  VArt  and  La  Chronique  des  Arts, 
Le  Gourrier  de  VArt,  are  equally  well  known.  England 
has  the  "  Magazine  of  Art,"  and  the  Art  Journal ; "  while 
America,  in  the  '^American  Journal  of  Archaeology,''  pos- 
sesses one  of  the  best  periodicals  devoted  to  the  history  of 
art,  especially  of  Ancient  Art.  Italy,  besides  its  many 
local  archseological  publications,  its  Arcliivio  Storico  Itali- 
am,  its  Archivio  Veneto,  Archivio  Lomhardo,  its  Riviste 
of  this  city  or  that  learned  society,  began  in  1888  to 
publish,  under  the  direction  of  Signer  Domenico  Gnoli,  an 
illustrated  revicAV,  U Archivio  Storico  delVArte  Italiana. 
The  numerous  reproductions  cannot  vie  with  the  more  cost- 
ly process  pictures  of  the  German  and  French  reviews  ; 
but  no  other  periodical  is  so  exclusively  consecrated  to  the 


PREFACE 


xi 


study  of  Italian  art  — the  art  of  the  Renaissance  —  and 
one  may  well  echo  its  elder  sister,  the  Gazette  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  in  hailing  ''la  glorieicse  existence"  of  the  Italian 
review. 

In  taking  up  the  English  contributions  to  the  study 
of  Italian  art  the  great  name  of  John  Ruskin  suggests 
itself  at  once  among  those  of  contemporaries  ;  he  first 
brought  Giotto  and  his  school  to  the  attention  of  English- 
speaking  readers,  and  led  the  latter  among  the  fourteenth- 
century  monuments  of  Florence  and  Venice  ;  he  taught 
them  also  to  look  at  sea  and  mountains  and  sky  with 
seeing  eyes ;  for  this  last  we  cannot  thank  him  too 
much.  Most  admirable  as  a  poet,  most  reprehensible  as 
a  special  pleader,  many  of  his  sophistries  have  entangled 
would-be  learners  in  a  maze  from  which  they  have  never 
been  extricated.  As  a  dogmatist  he  has  set  up  many  stum- 
bling-blocks and  given  a  vicious  direction  to  art  literature  by 
the  substitution  of  the  poetic  method  for  the  critical  method, 
of  rhapsody,  anathema,  diatribe,  for  investigation,  compari- 
son, and  analysis.  His  magnificent  style,  gorgeous  with 
Oriental  images,  blinded  his  readers  to  his  confusion  of 
thought,  his  strong  prejudices,  and  the  extreme  narrow- 
ness of  his  plastic  vision.  In  spite  of  his  capacity  for  noble 
appreciation  in  certain  directions,  no  great  writer  was  ever 
less  endowed  with  the  critical  faculty  ;  but  it  may  be  truly 
said  of  him  that,  though  he  has  often  fiercely  condemned  tfee 
worthy  he  has  never  admired  the  unworthy.  At  about  the 
same  time  that  Mr.  Ruskin  wrote  his  earlier  books,  Mrs. 
Jameson,  without  possessing  a  great  deal  of  either  plastic 
sense  or  technical  knowledge,  was  sincere  and  sympathetic  in 
the  expression  of  her  enthusiasm,  and  Lord  Lindsay  in  his 
volumes  did  much  to  promote  the  study  of  the  GiottescM. 

In  1864  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Oavalcaselle  commenced  to 
publish  their  work  upon  Italian  painting;  as  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  results  of  examining  an  enormous  number  of 
pictures  in  many  countr*  for  descriptions  of  the  said 
works,  of  their  technique,  their  coudition  of  preservation^ 


xii 


PREFACE 


the  drawings  made  as  preparations  for  the  works,  these 
authors  perhaps  deserve  the  foremost  place  in  the  litera- 
ture of  art  criticism  ;  their  invaluable  books  are,  however, 
marred  by  great  obscurity  of  diction,  and  a  somewhat  con- 
fused arrangement,  and  the  revised  edition  in  Italian,  now 
in  course  of  publication,  is  clearer  and  easier  of  comprehen- 
sion. The  ^^KaphaeP^  of  the  same  authors  is  an  admirable 
book,  and  their  ^'  Titian  is  (together  with  Le  Titien  of  M. 
Lafenestre)  the  most  important  contribution  to  the  subject. 

The  books  of  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  are  pub- 
lished in  two  languages,  and  may  be  claimed  by  both  Eng- 
land and  Italy.  Among  Englishmen  who  have  written 
during  the  last  thirty  years,  and  many  of  whom  are  still 
living,  have  been  Sir  Charles  Eastlake  and  Sir  A.  H.  Lay- 
ard,  each  the  annotator  of  an  edition  of  Kugler's  Hand- 
book ; "  Sir  J.  C.  Robinson,  the  author  of  publications  upon 
the  South  Kensington  Museum,  the  collections  at  Oxford, 
etc.  ;  Messrs.  Sidney  Colvin,  J.  Henry  Middleton,  and  W.  M. 
Rossetti,  with  their  important  articles  in  the  ^^Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  "  and  in  English  and  foreign  reviews,  also  Messrs. 
Fisher,  Cosmo  Monkhouse,  Comyns  Carr,  and  others. 

Mr.  Claude  Phillips  and  Miss  Constance  Jocelyn  Ffoulkes 
have  done  much,  both  in  English  and  Italian,  to  keep  us  in 
touch  with  the  most  recent  knowledge  concerning  Italian 
art  works  existing  in  the  private  and  public  collections  of 
England.  To  this  list  of  writers  must  be  added  the  well- 
known  name  of  Doctor  J.  P.  Richter,  famous  as  a  special 
student  of  Leonardo,  and  author  of  an  important  work 
upon  Italian  art  in  the  National  Gallery  as  well  as  of  many 
other  articles  and  studies. 

Besides  these  writers,  most  of  whom  approach  their  sub- 
ject from  the  technical  or  the  archasological  side,  or  from 
the  point  of  view  of  that  new  school  of  analytical  criticism 
which  for  convenience  may  be  called  the  Morellian,  there 
are  those  essayists  whose  charm  of  style  and  sympathy  with 
the  spirit  of  art  give  them  a  wider  public  of  readers  than 
is  accorded  to  those  who  are  more  strictly  specialists ;  such 


PREFACE 


xiii 


are  Walter  Pater  and  John  Addington  Symonds  and  Ver- 
non Lee  (Miss  Violet  Paget). 

Symonds,  a  careful  student  of  documents,  as  well  as  a 
poet  in  his  sympathy  with  one  whole  side  of  art  (and  that 
an  important  one)  has  left  perhaps  his  best  work  in  the 
life  of  Michelangelo.  In  his  admirable  ''History  of  the 
Renaissance/^  which  in  some  respects  follows  closely  upon 
the  line  of  Burckhardt's,  Der  Cultur  der  Renaissance,  his 
single  volume  upon  the  Pine  Arts  is  rather  a  philosophi- 
cal essay  than  a  history  of  the  various  schools,  and  the 
charm  of  Symonds^s  style,  his  sympathetic  comprehension 
of  the  loveliness  of  Italy  and  of  the  national  character  of 
her  art,  is  felt  nowhere  more  completely  than  in  his  shorter 
studies  and  sketches.  No  author  writes  of  Italian  art  more 
vividly  or  with  more  stimulating  effect  on  the  mind  of  her 
reader  than  Vernon  Lee,  whose  pungent,  forceful  essays 
are  steeped  in  the  very  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  and  in  the 
atmosphere  of  Italy. 

America  is  young  in  the  field  of  research  ;  but  besides 
her  ''  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,"  edited  by  Doctors 
Allan  Marquand  and  A.  L.  Frothingham,  Jr.,  she  has 
scholars  of  long-established  reputation  in  Messrs.  Charles 
Eliot  Norton,  James  Jackson  Jarves,  and  W.  J.  Stillman. 
Mr.  Jarves's  enthusiasm  obtained  for  Yale  College  an  excel- 
lent collection  of  the  very  early  masters  of  Italy,  and  Mr. 
Stillman's  series  of  papers  upon  the  Italian  painters  in  the 
"  Century  Magazine''  is  accompanied  by  an  admirable  series 
of  wood-engravings  executed  by  a  sincere  student  of  Italian 
art,  as  well  as  a  master  of  his  craft,  Mr.  Timothy  Cole. 

In  the  late  Charles  C.  Perkins  America  possessed  a  scholar 
of  whom  she  may  be  proud  ;  his  "  Tuscan  Sculptors  "  and 
"  Handbook  of  Italian  Sculpture  "  were  solid  contributions 
to  the  understanding  of  a  branch  of  art  which  at  the  time  he 
wrote  had  been  but  little  studied  ;  his  GMUrti  et  son  Ecole, 
published  in  Paris  in  French,  is  also  an  excellent  book. 
Mr.  Bernhard  Berenson  is  well  known  through  his  studies 
upon  Florentine  and  Venetian  painters  (containing  im- 


xiv 


PREFACE 


portant  catalogues  of  their  works),  his  articles  in  various 
periodicals,  and  his  important  monograph  upon  Lorenzo 
Lotto.  Mr.  Charles  Loeser  is  another  American  whose 
studies  in  special  directions  have  been  recognized  as  valu- 
able, and  Professor  Allan  Marquand  has  interested  himself 
particularly  in  the  work  of  the  Delia  Robbia  school. 
Mr.  Frederic  Crowninshield  has  contributed  an  excel- 
lent book,  "  Mural  Decoration,"  and  the  very  recent  works 
of  Professor  Hamlin  and  Mr.  Longfellow  and  the  valu- 
able historical  study  by  Mr.  Russell  Sturgis  on  "Euro- 
pean Architecture""  include  the  architecture  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance. 

The  French  are  'par  excellence  the  makers  of  those  best 
of  art  books  in  which  clearness  of  style,  plastic  feeling, 
systematized  knowledge,  and  numerous  illustrations,  made 
after  the  latest  processes,  combine  to  elucidate  the  subject. 
The  voluminous  history  edited  by  Charles  Blanc,  though 
eloquent  and  entertaining,  has  been  practically  superseded. 
A.  F.  Rio  (De  VArt  Chretien),  a  still  earlier  writer,  con- 
tributed a  work  of  interest,  but  was  so  fanatically  attached 
to  what  he  considered  the  spiritual  side  of  painting  that  he 
treated  Giotto  as  a  mere  materialist,  and  went  to  the  school 
of  Siena  for  all  pure  inspiration. 

The  historico-philosophical  method,  applied  to  the  study 
of  Mediaeval  and  Renaissance  Art,  among  Germans  by 
Kugler,  and  followed  by  Burckhardt,  the  psychological 
side  studied  by  Stendhal  with  so  much  comprehension  of 
the  Italian  nature,  were  both  developed  with  wide  sympa- 
thetic appreciation — philosophical,  historical,  psychological 
—and  with  astonishing  picturesqueness  of  diction  by  Taine 
in  his  Philosopliie  de  VArt  and  in  his  Voyage  en  Italic,  No 
one  has  given  us  pages  more  colored,  more  inspiring,  more 
true  in  the  highest  sense,  and  no  one  has  shown  a  more 
catholic  comprehension,  a  more  liberal  sympathy  for  all 
forms  of  plastic  art.  No  book  is  more  fitted  than  is  the 
Voyage  en  Italic  to  induce  in  the  tyro  a  healthy  and  in- 
telligent enthusiasm  for  Italian  art. 


PREB^ACE 


XV 


The  most  complete  and  available  general  history  of  the 
art  of  the  Renaissance  existing  in  any  language  is  probably 
that  of  M.  Eugene  Miintz.  The  three  large  volumes  upon 
Italy  have  appeared,  and  will  be  followed  by  those  upon 
France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  England.  In  any  work  treat- 
ing of  the  plastic  arts,  the  elucidative  importance  of  good 
illustrations  reproducing  the  buildings,  statues,  and  pictures 
mentioned,  cannot  be  over-estimated,  and  M.  Miintz's  vol- 
umes contain  many  hundreds  of  excellent  process  reproduc- 
tions of  the  actual  monuments,  his  critical  appreciations  are 
clear,  and  his  historical  and  biographical  matter  cover  a 
period  stretching  from  the  early  Italian  Renaissance  to  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  M.  Miintz  has  been  indefati- 
gable as  a  publisher  of  documents,  and  is  the  author  of  a 
great  number  of  important  works,  and  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  periodical  literature.  A  short  but  admirable  history 
of  Italian  Art,  indeed  a  model  in  its  way,  is  that  by  M. 
Georges  Lafenestre.  His  is  a  capital  example  of  the  French 
capacity  for  real  art  criticism,  and  the  possession  of  plastic 
sense  of  a  high  order,  as  distinguished  from  that  critical 
appreciation  which  is  based  principally  upon  either  archaeo- 
logical research,  or  literary  sense,  or  both. 

Other  well-balanced  and  enlightening  critics  are  Paul 
Mantz  {Les  Chefs-cVCEuvre  de  la  peinture  italieime,  Andrea 
Mantefjna,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  etc.)  ;  Armand  Baschet,  who 
was  a  notable  discoverer  of  documentary  evidence  (see  his 
Mantuan  investigations),  and  M.  Charles  Yriarte,  who  has 
written  of  patrons  and  artists  at  once,  of  Malatesta,  Gonzaga, 
Borgia, —of  Matteo  da  Civitale  and  Agostino  da  Duccio ; 
M.  Louis  Gonse,  Director  of  the  Gazette  des  Beaiix-Arts, 
M.  Anatole  de  Montaiglon,  Andre  Perate,  E.  Plon,  are 
authors  of  studies  or  monographs.  The  Vicomte  Henri 
Delaborde  has  treated  of  the  Italian  engravers ;  M.  Charles 
Ephrussi  has  given  his  attention  rather  to  the  drawings 
of  the  masters  ;  M.  Charles  Clement  has  been  one  of  the 
historians  of  Michelangelo,  Raphael,  and  Leonardo.  Among 
other  authors  are  M.  Gustave  Gruyer,  M.  Anatole  Gruyer, 


xvi 


PREFACE 


the  indefatigable  student  of  Raphael ;  M.  Ravaisson-Mollien, 
and  M.  Houssaye,  with  their  works  upon  Leonardo  da 
Vinci.  In  the  direction  of  sculpture  the  late  Louis  Oourajod 
was  an  eminent  critic.  M.  Molinier  has  written  specially  of 
the  Delia  Robbia  school,  as  also  of  Italian  bronzes,  of  the 
decorative  arts  of  Venice,  etc.,  while  M.  Marcel  Reymond 
has  given  his  attention  to  those  early  schools  of  Italian 
sculpture  which  are  especially  represented  in  Florence, 
Orvieto,  Pisa,  and  Siena. 

The  Germans  are  natural  archaeologists,  enthusiastic  ex- 
cavators in  the  mines  of  recorded  facts,  and  the  name  of 
their  art  contributors  is  legion,  their  great  periodicals, 
which  have  been  mentioned  above,  affording  them  a  wide 
field  for  publication.  Von  Rumohr^s  Forschungen  was  one 
of  the  earliest  special  works.  Passavant  and  Grimm,  as  the 
historians  respectively  of  Raphael  and  Michelangelo,  became 
famous.  Gregorovius  has  written  learnedly  of  the  historic 
background  ;  Franz  Kugler  was  perhaps  the  first  among  the 
Germans  to  treat  Italian  art  from  a  point  of  view  at  once 
philosophical  and  historical,  and  his  pupil.  Dr.  Jacob  Burck- 
hardt,  has  embraced  all  sides  of  the  epoch  of  the  revival  in  his 

Culture  of  the  Renaissance,"^  his  "  History  of  the  Renais- 
sance in  Italy,"'  and  lastly  in  his  Cicerone,""  that  unique 
book  which,  says  M.  Auguste  Gerard,  is  at  once  a  topography, 
a  history,  and  a  criticism  of  the  monuments  of  antique  and 
modern  art  in  Italy.  General  histories  of  Italian  art  have 
been  written  by  Dr.  W.  Von  Liibke,  E.  Foerster,  and  by 
Herrn  Woltmann  and  Woermann  in  collaboration  ;  Kugler's 

Handbook ""  is  well  known,  and  Dr.  Dohme's  series  of  ar- 
tists" biographies,  the  Kiinst  und  Kilnstler  des  Mittelalters 
mid  der  Neuzeit  is  the  united  work  of  many  contributors. 
Dr.  W.  Bode  is  an  eminent  representative  of  later  art  litera- 
ture, who  has  edited  two  editions  of  the  Cicerone,""  made, 
together  with  Herr  von  Tschudi,  the  catalogue  of  the  Berlin 
Museum,  published  important  books  upon  the  sculpture  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance,  and  written  many  articles  for  the 
Gazette  des  Beaux- Arts  as  well  as  for  German  periodicals. 


PREFACE 


xvii 


Anton  Springer  is  the  classic  German  authority  upon  Michel- 
angelo and  Raphael,  and  a  general  history  is  now  appearing 
under  his  name.  Herr  August  Von  Schmarsow  has  written 
much  of  the  sculptor  Donatello,  the  painters  Raphael, 
Pinturicchio,  Melozzo,  and  especially  of  sculptors.  Herr 
Semper's  Donatello  is  an  important  monograph,  as  is  also 
that  upon  Botticelli  by  Dr.  H.  Ulmann.  Other  well-known 
names  are  those  of  Herr  Frey,  whose  editions  of  selected 
lives  from  Vasari  are  scholarly  ;  Herr  Dollmayr,  with  im- 
portant studies  upon  Raphael  in  the  Austrian  Annuary  for 
1896  ;  Thausing,  Janitschek,  Schultz  (for  southern  Italy), 
Mundler,  Gronau,  Winterberg,  Von  Liphart,  Bayersdorffer, 
Karl  Brun,  Dobbert,  Liitzow,  Wickhoff,  who  has  written 
especially  upon  drawings;  Jansen,  the  historian  of  Sod- 
doma  ;  Vischer,  the  student  of  Signorelli  ;  Harzen,  Hittorf, 
Max  Jordan,  Portheim,  Meyer,  whose  life  of  Correggio  is 
well  known  ;  Miiller-Walde,  the  critic  of  Leonardo  ;  Nagler, 
Schmidt,  Redtenbacher,  Scliorn,  Von  Seidletz,  Schnaase, 
Simonsfeld,  AVaagen,  who  has  written  upon  Mantegna  and 
Signorelli  ;  Wolzogen,  a  student  of  Raphael ;  Thode,  who 
has  treated  the  earlier  epoch  of  Italian  art,  and  Von  Tschudi, 
author  of  special  studies  published  both  in  German  and 
Italian.  Baron  Henri  Von  Geymiiller  has  devoted  a  great 
part  of  his  life  to  the  study  of  Bramante,  and  has  published 
works  of  the  greatest  importance,  such  as  Die  Ursprungliclien 
Entivilrfe  filr  Sanct  Peter  m  Rom  (German  and  French  edi- 
tions), on  Raphael  as  architect,  and  Tuscan  architecture  of 
the  Renaissance,  while  Herr  Cornelius  Von  Fabriczy  has 
contributed  the  latest  and  best  work  upon  Brunelleschi,  and 
Herr  Schmarsow  has  written  upon  Michelozzi. 

With  the  Italians  the  succession  of  art  historians  and 
archaeologists  has  not  failed  from  the  fifteenth  century  down 
to  our  own  times.  First  there  are  the  works  of  the  artists 
themselves,  Ghiberti,  Cennini,  Alberti,  Piero  della  Fran- 
cesca,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Cellini,  and  others ;  last,  and 
most  important  as  historian,  Vasari  ;  next  come  Giovio  with 
his  "  Lives,"  Albertini  with  his  Meiiioriale,  Pacioli  with  his 


xviii 


PREFACE 


scientific  studies,  the  excellent  Michieli  (the  Anonimo  of 
Morelli),  and  more  than  one  other  Anonymus  ;  "  Ridolfi 
with  his  Meraviglie,  Dolce  with  his  Dialogo,  Borghini  with 
his  Biposo,  and  Lomazzo  with  his  Treatise,  are  contempora- 
neous or  early  sources.  A  hiatus  of  more  than  a  century 
and  a  half  brings  us  to  Bottari's  Vasari  (1759),  Delia  Valleys 
Vasari  (1797),  to  Cicognara,  Baldinucci,  DaMorrona,  Lanzi, 
and  Milizia,  to  the  engravings  of  Lasinio,  Toschi,  and 
Longhi.  Between  1846  and  1857,  Pini,  the  Marchese  Sel- 
vatico,  and  the  brothers  Milanesi  completed  their  important 
Lemonnier- Vasari,  with  copious  annotations,  and  a  revised 
edition  by  Gaetano  Milanesi  appeared  between  1878  and 
1883. 

These  two  editions  of  Vasari,  together  with  the  Sienese 
studies  of  Milanesi  and  G-aye'^s  Carteggio,  laid  a  solid  foun- 
dation of  documentary  evidence  and  scientific  method  upon 
which  other  students  could  base  further  researches.  All  of 
this  laborious  work,  requiring  as  it  did  patient  devotion, 
critical  acumen,  and  complete  pecuniary  disinterestedness, 
cannot  be  too  highly  estimated.  Matter  of  great  value  was 
also  contributed  by  the  various  Italian  archaeological  soci- 
eties and  by  the  learned  and  voluminous  Storia  della  Pit- 
tura  Italiana,  which,  as  the  joint  production  of  Signer  J. 
Cavalcaselle  and  the  late  Sir  J.  A.  Crowe,  was  given  to 
both  English  and  Italian  publics. 

In  1874  appeared  the  first  essays  of  Morelli.  Although 
an  Italian  and  native  of  Bergamo  he  published  his  first  work 
{Ein  hritischer  Versuch  von  Ivan  Lermolieff,  ins  Deutsche 
ilhersetzt  von  Johannes  Schivartz  [1880] )  in  German  and 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Ivan  Lermolieff  (a  Russianized  re- 
arrangement of  the  letters  in  the  name  Giovanni  Morelli). 
His  theories  were  based  upon  an  experimental  analysis  of 
pictures.  The  work  of  every  painter  is  undoubtedly  a 
double  product  of  his  impressions  obtained  from  observation 
of  nature  and  of  impressions  derived  from  his  master.  All 
of  these  impressions  are  modified  by  the  personality  of  the 
painter  himself,  but  Morelli  pointed  out  that  there  are  cer- 


PKEFACE 


xix 


tain  features  in  man  as  well  as  in  nature  generally,  which  are 
less  variable  (or  more  subtly  varied)  than  others,  and  which 
the  artist  is  therefore  less  likely  to  carefully  observe  and  dif- 
ferentiate.   The  critic  chose  as  his  crucial  features  the  hand 
and  ear.    By  observing  minutely  the  treatment  of  these  in 
a  very  great  number  of  pictorial  examples  he  accumulated 
sufficient  data  to  assure  him  (to  his  own  satisfaction)  of  the 
authorship  of  many  hitherto  unknown  pictures,  and  to  jus- 
tify him  in  changing  the  attribution  of  many  works  already 
catalogued.    He  did  not  neglect  the  study  of  other  details, 
and  observed  not  only  color,  drawing,  drapery,  but  even  the 
nature  of  the  wood,  canvas,  preparation,  varnish,  and  pig- 
ment.   The  English  editions  are  "  Italian  Masters  in  Ger- 
man Galleries,^^  London,  1883  ;  "  Italian  Painters,"  London, 
1892.    Though  well  translated  by  Mrs.  L.  P.  Eichter  and 
Miss  Constance  Jocelyn  Ff  oulkes,  they  are  not  very  readable, 
but  are  well  worth  reading.    Their  elfect  is  somewhat  im- 
paired by  their  controversial  character.    The  conclusions 
are  at  times  arbitrary,  and  the  author  occasionally  employs 
the  kind  of  reasoning  which  he  finds  unconvincing  in  those 
who  hold  opinions  contrary  to  his  own.    He  objects  strongly 
to  a  critic's  being  influenced  greatly  by  the  spiritual  impres- 
sion of  a  work,  and  claims  that  only  minute  comparison  will 
afford  a  basis  for  conclusion.    To  this  statement  it  may  be 
replied  that  a  work  of  art  often  has  a  significance  which 
partakes  at  one  and  the  same  time  of  the  spiritual  and  the 
technical,  and  in  tlie  discussion  of  such  work  true  solution 
probably  falls  somewliere  between  the  analysis  of  Morelli 
and  the  conclusions  of  other  critics  who  are  less  rigidly  in- 
ductive.   In  short,  if  Morelli  is  more  reliable  in  a  case  of 
classification,  the  remarks  of  such  men  as  Paul  Mantz,  M. 
Lafenestre,  M.  Miintz  are  often  more  illuminating  and 
characterize  the  work  more  completely,  which  is  to  say, 
more  truly. 

To  catalogue  and  date  a  work  correctly  is  undoubtedly 
important.  It  is  by  showing  the  links  in  the  chain  of  art 
that  its  evolution  is  demonstrated  in  its  entirety.    To  the 


XX 


PREFACE 


student  of  schools,  of  the  ramifications  of  artistic  influences 
attenuated  to  their  most  distant  and  feeble  results,  Morelli's 
books  are  invaluable.  To  the  student  of  masterpieces  and 
of  the  main  characteristics  and  great  personalities  of  a 
school,  to  those  lovers  of  pictures  who  are  content  to  some- 
times keep  the  question  of  authorship  in  abeyance  to  the 
value  of  the  work  as  a  general  effect,  who  consider  the  pict- 
ure per  se  as  its  maker  and  his  contemporaries  did,  for  the 
visual  pleasure  that  it  imparts,  certain  other  critics  are  more 
inspiring.  It  is  but  just  to  state  that  some  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  living  authorities  disagree  with  Morelli  in  certain 
instances  and  accept  his  assertions  with  great  caution  in 
others  ;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  must  be  admitted  that 
Morelli  has  not  only  catalogued  minor  works,  but  has  al- 
tered the  attribution  of  some  masterpieces  and  has  obtained 
for  many  of  his  changes  almost  a  consensus  of  critical 
opinion.  He  is  a  remarkable  and  original  figure  in  criti- 
cism, and  as  Mr.  Claude  Phillips  has  remarked  there  is 
at  present  no  possible  return  to  a  pre-Morellian  state  of 
criticism."  Dr.  Gustavo  Frizzoni  is  an  eminent  representa- 
tive of  this  modern  school  in  Italy,  his,  A^^te  Italiana  del 
Rinascimento,  Milan,  1891,  his  work  on  the  Morelli  col- 
lection are  well  known,  and  he  is  a  frequent  contributor  to 
the  periodical  literature  of  art. 

The  Italians  are  not  only  students  of  their  national  art, 
but  as  its  natural  warders  enjoy  exceptional  opportunities, 
having  at  one  hand  the  plastic  documents  of  the  galleries, 
and  at  the  other  the  written  documents  of  the  archives. 
Eminent  critics  have  charge  of  more  than  one  great  col- 
lection ;  Signor  Adolfo  Venturi  is  the  head  of  the  National 
Galleries,  and  Signor  Corrado  Ricci,  the  director  of  the  Gal- 
lery of  Parma,  has  written  the  recent  important  monograph 
upon  Parma's  chief  glory,  Correggio  ;  Signor  Enrico  Ridolfi  is 
another  eminent  authority.  Other  famous  writers  of  special 
monographs  and  articles  for  the  reviews  have  been,  or  are, 
Signori  Luigi  Passerini,  Umberto  Rossi,  Adamo  Rossi,  Mon- 
geri,  Minghetti,  Bertolotti,  Gualandi,  Cecchetti,  Domen- 


PREFACE 


xxi 


ico  Gnoli,  the  editor-in-chief  of  UArcliivio  Storico  delV 
Arte,  and  a  special  student  in  many  directions  ;  Aurelio 
Gotti  (author  of  the  Michelangelo),  Luca  Beltrami,  Pietro 
Gianuizzi,  Campori,  Nardini  Despotti  Mospignotti,  Alessan- 
dro  Luzio,  Cesare  Guasti,  Paolo  Fontana,  C.  Cavalucci, 
P.  Molmenti,  N.  Baldoria,  Camillo  Boito  (editor  of  the 
magnificent  folio  work  upon  San  Marco,  and  director  of 
L'  Arte  Decor ativa  e  Industriale  Italiana),  Mancini,  and 
Paoletti.  Among  the  writers  for  or  reviewed  in  the  Archi- 
vio  Storico  dell'  Arte  Italiana  are  Signori  Argnani,  Davari, 
Giordani  (art  in  the  province  of  Emilia),  Melani,  d^  Adda 
(art  in  the  province  of  Milan),  d^  Arco  (especially  upon 
Mantuan  art),  Cittadella,  Calzini,  Gloria  (especially  upon 
Donatello),  Carotti,  Marcotti,  Cantalamessa,  Maruti,  Grassi, 
and  Supino,  the  latter  an  enthusiastic  student  of  the  early 
Tuscan  sculptors,  particularly  of  Giovanni  Pisano.  In  this 
list  only  the  protagonists  have  been  mentioned,  and  the 
men  noted  are  in  every  case  the  authors  of  more  works  than 
those  recorded  here.  Each  month  adds  to  the  long  list  of 
articles  published  in  English,  French,  German,  and  Italian, 
so  that  a  complete  abstract  of  the  work  done  and  doing  in 
the  field  of  Renaissance  Art  would  exceed  the  space  which 
can  be  accorded  to  the  notes  in  these  volumes. 

It  is,  however,  the  desire  of  the  editors  to  emphasize  the 
copiousness  and  great  interest  of  this  literature,  and  to  call 
to  the  attention  of  the  reading  public  the  fact  that  a 
band  of  special  students,  critics,  and  archaeologists  is  work- 
ing in  this  field  and  contributing  invaluably  to  the  history 
of  Italian  Art.  The  notes  to  these  volumes  are  largely  made 
up  from  the  opinions  and  discoveries  of  these  men,  and  the 
editors  have  endeavored  in  every  case  to  credit  the  source 
from  which  they  have  drawn  information,  and  desire  to  ac- 
knowledge their  special  indebtedness  to  the  notes  of  the  late 
Cavaliere  Gaetano  Milanesi,  editor  of  the  last  Florentine 
edition  of  Vasari's  "Lives'' ;  to  the  work  of  MM.  Miintz, 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  Symonds,  and  indeed  to  the  many 
critics  and  students  who  have  been  cited  or  quoted  in  the 


xxii 


PREFACE 


following  notes.  To  tlie  examination  of  original  documents 
in  state  or  town  archives,  or  to  the  deciphering  of  manu- 
scripts, the  editors  of  these  volumes  lay  no  claim  whatso- 
ever, but  they  have  tried  to  state  impartially  the  differing 
opinions  of  many  investigators  of  the  archives.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  all  matters  of  a  purely  artistic  nature  the 
editors  have  not  hesitated  to  express  themselves,  since  dur- 
ing the  course  of  many  visits  (some  of  them  protracted)  to 
Italy  they  have  seen  and  examined,  in  cities  large  and  small, 
most  of  the  still  existing  works  of  art  which  Vasari  men- 
tions. 

Great  as  is  the  obligation  owed  by  the  art-lover  to  the 
critics  and  students  who  have  created  for  him  a  whole 
literature,  both  he  and  they  are  still  more  deeply  in- 
debted to  the  discovery  of  those  photographic  processes  which 
have  utterly  changed  the  character  of  the  data  for  study. 
When  Mrs.  Foster  made  her  translation,  only  the  adven- 
turous traveller  willing  to  fare  roughly,  or  else  the  wealthy 
tourist  with  his  coach  and  postilions,  was  able  to  see  the  art 
works  of  Italy.  Occasional  artists,  professional  or  amateur, 
made  drawings  which  showed  picture  or  statue  modified  by 
their  own  personality  and  capacity  ;  these  drawings  were  sub- 
jected to  a  second  interpretation,  through  engraving  six- 
teenth-century art  was  taught  to  speak  with  a  seventeenth- 
or  eighteenth-century  accent,  and  the  results  were  published 
in  costly  folios  or  quartos. 

To-day  a  more  faithful  reproduction  can  be  bought  in  a  ten- 
cent  weekly  than  could  be  obtained  for  any  money  fifty  years 
ago.  In  the  study  of  the  plastic  arts  even  a  poor  photograph 
is  worth  more  than  pages  of  description,  and  the  fine  results 
attained  by  the  Alinari,  of  Florence,  Braun-Clement  and 
Co.,  Hanfstaengel,  Anderson,  Brogi,  and  other  photog- 
raphers enable  the  stay-at-home  student  of  to-day  to  have 
within  his  reach  what  the  man  of  half  a  century  ago  could  not 
hope  to  compass  in  a  lifetime  of  travel,  or  by  the  expenditure 
of  a  fortune.  The  most  complete  and  admirable  collection 
of  photographic  reproductions  of  art  works  existing  in  the 


PREFACE 


xxiii 


museums,  churches,  streets,  palaces,  and  squares  of  the 
Peninsula  is  that  of  the  Alinari  Brothers,  of  Florence, 
comprising  large  and  small  reproductions  of  architecture, 
sculpture,  painting,  mosaic,  enlarged  architectural  detail,  in 
all  the  important  cities,  big  and  little,  between  Naples  and 
the  Alps,  so  that  their  catalogues  of  Rome,  Florence,  and  of 
the  various  provinces,  Milanese,  Venetian,  Umbrian,  etc., 
form  a  stout  volume.  The  photographs  of  Brogi  are  also  ex- 
cellent. Anderson  in  Rome  has  made  many  reproductions 
which  are  of  especial  interest  to  the  student  and  scholar. 
Lombardi  in  Siena,  Marcozzi  in  Milan,  the  Fotografia  delF 
Emilia  in  Bologna,  have  made  large  local  collections,  while 
the  splendid  photographs  of  Braun  in  Paris,  reproduce  the 
Italian  works  in  the  great  continental  galleries,  and  the  ad- 
mirable work  of  Hanfstaengel  and  others  is  devoted  espe- 
cially to  pictures  in  the  German  museums. 

But  no  classified  collection  of  photographs,  no  library  of 
special  works,  can  replace  a  knowledge  of  Italy  itself.  To 
have  become  familiar  with  the  originals  of  the  reproduc- 
tions, the  subjects  of  the  essays  and  studies,  through  long 
sojourns  in,  and  many  visits  to,  the  towns,  great  and  small, 
of  Italy  and  Sicily,  is  the  best  of  art  educations.  A  year  in 
Tuscany,  a  spring  in  Umbria,  a  sojourn  in  Lombardy  or 
Venetia,  will  bring  the  student  into  closer  sympathy  with 
Italian  art  than  months  spent  in  libraries  or  picture  galleries. 
To  study  the  "  Lives in  the  library  is  good  ;  to  follow  the 
artists,  with  Gossip  Vasari  for  guide,  through  the  Roman 
churches  and  palaces,  the  narrow  alleys  of  old  Florence,  the 
water-ways  of  Venice,  and  the  steep  streets  of  Umbrian 
towns,  is  better  ;  to  know  by  heart,  through  much  contem- 
plation, through  passionate  appreciation,  the  noble  and  beau- 
tiful works  of  the  men  whose  lives  Vasari  recorded  is  best. 
To  the  special  student  of  the  biographies  a  prolonged  stay 
in  Italy,  or  at  least  in  Tuscany,  is  indispensable.  Although 
he  was  a  native  of  Arezzo,  Vasari's  Italian  is  that  of  Florence 
—colloquial,  familiar,  racy,  rich  in  allusions  to  local  cus- 
toms, filled  with  Florentine  proverbs  and  quaint  turns  of 


xxiv 


PREFACE 


speech  —  and  he  took  it  for  granted  that  his  reader  had 
lived  within  the  sound  of  the  big  bell  in  Giotto's  tower. 

A  practical  art  education,  an  acquaintance  with  technical 
processes,  is  of  no  small  service  to  the  annotator  of  Vasari. 
To  have  handled  the  tools,  to  have  manipulated  the  mate- 
rial, to  be  of  the  same  craft,  though  the  humblest  of  the 
brotherhood,  is  to  enjoy  a  special  kind  of  comprehension  of 
the  old  masters,  and  the  artist  who  through  his  training  is 
familiar  with  the  media  by  which  the  men  of  Vasari  ex- 
pressed their  thought,  enjoys  a  closer  communion  with  them 
than  the  most  diligent  compiler  of  documents. 

Finally,  as  the  result  of  these  studies  of  Vasari's  Lives 
the  editors  would  express  their  conviction  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  Italian  school  of  art  is  valuable  beyond  that  of  any  other 
modern  school — great  as  are  the  artists  of  Flanders,  Spain, 
Germany,  France,  and  England — because  in  the  Kenaissance 
only  we  have  the  example  of  the  complete  evolution  of  a 
national  art,  from  its  birth,  through  its  upgrowth,  to  its 
culmination  and  decadence,  so  that  for  art  in  its  most 
monumental  manifestation  even  the  countrymen  of  Dtirer, 
Eembrandt,  Eubens,  and  Velasquez,  turn  to  Leonardo, 
Correggio,  and  Titian,  to  Raphael  and  to  Michelangelo, 
the  men  of  the  Italy  of  Vasari. 

New  York,  November,  1896. 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


I 

The  Most  Illnstrions  Cardinal  Farnese,  the  beloved  grand- 
son of  the  reigning  pope,  the  patron  of  arts  and  letters, 
the  friend  of  the  learned,  and  the  lover  of  antiquity,  was  at 
supper. 

The  meal  was  a  ceremony  in  the  household  of  this  prince 
of  the  Church  ;  it  meant  not  only  ortolans  and  Greek  wines, 
a  boar's  head  horrent  with  burnt-sugar  bristles,  the  classic 
peacock  in  its  feathers,  but  a  levee  and  a  reception  as  well. 
It  was  at  supper  that  the  Cardinal  gave  audience  to  his 
familiars,  and  to  the  humanists,  the  envoys,  the  buffoons, 
the  artists,  the  charlatans,  the  traders,  and  the  priests,  who 
sought  the  good  graces  of  one  so  powerful  at  the  papal 
court.  True  the  position  of  Pope's  favorite  was  not  quite 
what  it  had  been  before  the  meddling  German  monk  and 
his  countrymen  had  begun  to  pry  into  sacerdotal  affairs, 
and  make  a  trifle  of  dissimulation  a  disagreeable  necessity  ; 
but  no  Riario  or  della  Rovere,  no  son  or  nephew  of  Sixtus 
IV.  or  Alexander  VI.,  kept  a  finer  court  or  spread  a  more 
sumptuous  table  than  did  Cardinal  Farnese. 

In  1546  it  was  still  possible  for  a  churchman  to  frankly 
savor  the  pleasures  of  life  even  with  a  Council  of  Trent  al- 
ready assembled,  and  for  Paul  III.  and  his  relatives — espe- 
cially his  relatives — to  enjoy  the  Papacy  which  God  had 
given"  him.  The  Papacy  could  be  enjoyed  after  many 
different  fashions.  Rome,  now  that  Florence  was  crushed, 
Venice  despoiled,  and  Milan  invaded,  was  the  true  centre 
of  Italy,  the  intellectual  urhs  ;  in  spite  of  recalcitrant  Eng- 
lish and  heretic  Germans  Peter's  pence  flowed  into  the 


xxvi 


GIOEGIO  VASARI 


treasury,  the  trade  in  indulgences  was  still  brisk,  though  the 
northern  markets  were  quiet,  and  the  Pope,  being  still  of 
the  opinion  that  God  wills  not  the  death  of  a  sinner, 
but  rather  that  he  should  pay  and  live,"  had  established 
a  regular  tariff  for  crimes  suited  to  persons  in  moderate 
circumstances.  Some  idea  of  the  result  of  such  general 
enjoyment  may  be  obtained  from  the  facts  that  the  beg- 
gars filled  one  whole  quarter  of  the  city,  and  that  a  pro- 
fessional cutthroat  could  be  hired  for  from  ten  to  four 
scudi  a  single  murder,  though  there  was  naturally  a  reduc- 
tion in  price  when  a  quantity  of  assassinations  was  ordered. 
The  Eternal  City  was  a  huge  caravansary,  to  it  came  every- 
one who  had  something  to  sell — tongue,  pen,  brush,  or  sword 
— and  where  all  the  delectable  commodities  of  earth  were 
on  sale  as  well  as  the  spiritual  delights  of  heaven. 

It  was  therefore  a  mixed  company  that  gathered  about 
the  long  table,  with  its  laced  linen  and  its  chiselled  plate, 
when  the  heat  of  the  day  was  over  and  a  breeze  from  Ostia 
had  begun  to  cool  the  tepid  marbles  of  the  CardinaPs  pal- 
ace. There  was  an  Arab  horse-dealer  who  had  come  to 
offer  a  choice  lot  of  white  mules  to  his  Eminence ;  there 
was  a  worn,  tired,  young  painter,  who  had  just  finished  a 
series  of  frescoes  in  the  Cancelleria ;  there  was  a  peasant, 
looking  like  a  faun  in  his  short  cloak  and  goat-skin  breeches, 
carrying  something  that  he  had  unearthed  only  yesterday 
in  his  vineyard — an  antique  bust  with  the  earth  still  cling- 
ing to  the  arched  lips  and  the  waves  of  the  hair  ;  there 
were  envoys  from  all  the  different  Italian  states,  diplomats 
more  famous  for  their  orations  and  their  scholarship  than 
their  statecraft ;  a  sleek  Oriental,  with  a  brown,  tightly 
rolled  MS.  from  a  Greek  convent ;  a  famous  goldsmith, 
bringing  a  wax  model  for  a  jewelled  cope-clasp,  and  two  or 
three  couriers  with  sealed  letters. 

In  places  of  honor  was  a  fair  sprinkling  of  churchmen, 
easily  distinguished  by  their  noble  breadth  of  girdle  and 
their  strongly  marked  faces,  heavy  of  feature,  subtle  of  ex- 
pression ;  and  a  group  of  famous  scholars.    There  was  Clau- 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xxvii 


dio  Tolomei,  the  purist ;  Annibale  Caro,  whose  translation 
of  Daphnis  and  Chloe,  and  whose  discourse  on  Noses  were 
the  delight  of  the  learned  and  polite  ;  Paolo  Giovio,  collector, 
art-critic,  and  art-lover,  most  venal  and  most  candid  of 
biographers,  who  warned  his  readers  that  in  his  "  Notices  " 
he  had  praised  only  those  of  his  contemporaries  who  had 
made  it  worth  his  while  ;  there,  too,  was  a  tragic  figure,  a 
man  still  young,  spilling  the  sauces  on  his  doublet,  mumb- 
ling in  his  speech,  and  groping  blindly  with  shaking  hands 
for  the  wine ;  this  was  Molza,  the  poet,  author  of  the 
Ninfa  Tiberina,  once  the  daintiest  of  fine  gentlemen,  the 
lover  of  famous  and  beautiful  women,  who,  dying  of  slow 
paralysis,  still  clung  feebly  to  the  world  he  loved. 

Following  the  example  of  the  Pope,  who  honored  learn- 
ing and  the  learned,  and  who  had  given  the  red  hat  to  three 
famous  humanists,  the  Cardinal  was  graciousness  itself  to 
the  scholars.  It  was  toward  them  that  he  most  frequently 
turned  his  dark,  handsome  head,  and  to  their  rather  lengthy 
speeches  (for  as  is  customary  with  the  erudite  they  dis- 
coursed rather  than  conversed)  he  listened,  not  only  with 
courtesy  but  with  evident  pleasure.  On  this  particular 
evening  he  had  chosen  to  question  Monsignore  Giovio  re- 
garding his    Museum"  of  celebrated  men. 

This  gallery  of  portraits,  which  Giovio  had  collected  from 
many  different  sources,  and  which  was  divided  into  three 
sections,  viz.,  scholars  and  poets  ;  artists  ;  sovereigns,  princes, 
and  generals  ;  was  the  pride  of  its  owner.  It  contained 
many  treasures,  among  them  the  portrait  of  Aretino  by 
Titian,  now  in  the  Uffizi,  and  that  of  Mohammed  II.  by 
Gentile  Bellini.  It  may  readily  be  imagined  how  exhaust- 
ively Giovio  would  treat  his  favorite  topic  before  so  sym- 
pathetic an  audience.  When  he  had  done  ample  justice  to 
the  portraits  he  announced  his  intention  of  completmg  the 
biographical  studies  he  had  made  in  connection  with  them 
by  a  treatise  on  the  men  who  had  distinguished  themselves 
in  the  arts  of  design.  He  then,  for  those  were  times  of 
unlimited  leisure,  when  colloquial  tyranny  was  unresented 


xxviii 


GIORGIO  VASAEI 


and  the  monologue  was  a  social  institution,  proceeded  to 
sketch  the  plan  of  his  work  and  to  enlarge  upon  tlie  de- 
tails, talking  of  this,  that,  and  the  other  painter  or  sculp- 
tor, of  their  birthplaces,  their  families,  and  their  works  in 
a  way  that  deeply  impressed  his  hearers. 

In  the  pause  that  followed  one  well-rounded  period  the 
Cardinal  turned  to  a  slight,  alert-looking  young  man  in  a 
sad-colored  doublet  and  asked  : 

^'  What  think  you,  Giorgio,  would  not  this  be  a  noble 
work?'' 

The  painter,  who  came  every  evening  to  his  patron's  sup- 
per, often  found  the  conversation  of  the  learned  as  dry  and 
insipid  as  the  peacock  roasted  in  its  feathers  which  orna- 
mented the  table.  It  was  only  when  a  cameo  or  an  antique 
coin  was  handed  about,  or  a  trader  or  peasant  came  with 
treasure-trove  for  the  Cardinal's  inspection,  or  San  Gallo's 
plans  for  the  new  palace  were  examined,  or  Giulio  Clovio's 
miniatures  for  his  Eminence's  manuscripts  were  admired 
that  he  ventured  to  give  an  opinion.  He  had  listened  to 
Giovio's  plans  with  interest,  yet  with  the  resigned,  long- 
suifering  expression  characteristic  of  the  artist  who  is  inured 
to  hearing  his  own  craft  discussed  by  the  lettered  and  the 
erudite.  To  the  Cardinal's  question,  "  Would  not  this  be 
a  noble  work  ?  "  he  replied,  quietly  : 

<i  Very  fine  indeed.  Most  Illustrious,  provided  Giovio  were 
assisted  by  someone  who  is  an  artist  to  put  things  in  their 
right  places,  and  to  relate  them  as  they  really  happened.  I 
say  this  because,  though  his  discourse  was  excellent,  he  has 
changed  many  things,  and  often  put  one  thing  in  the  place 
of  another." 

To  this  the  Cardinal  answered,  after  listening  to  the  eager 
suggestions  of  Caro,  Giovio,  Tolomei,  and  the  others, 

Could  you  not  then  give  him  a  summary  and  a  classified 
list  of  all  the  artists,  arranged  in  order,  whereby  you  would 
also  advance  the  arts." 

The  painter  may  have  thought  with  a  sigh  of  the  frescoes 
in  the  hall  of  the  Chancery  that  he  was  painting  against 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xxix 


time,  of  the  family  in  Arezzo  to  be  provided  for,  of  tiie 
orders  to  be  executed  post-haste  for  impatient  patrons, 
most  of  all  of  the  hours  of  unremunerative  labor  which 
such  an  undertaking  implied,  but  he  answered,  steadily  : 

Most  Illustrious,  though  I  know  that  this  task  is  too 
great  for  my  poor  powers,  I  promise  to  perform  it  as  well  as 
I  am  able." 

The  man  who  undertook  this  work  was  Giorgio  Vasari, 
and  the  task  was  the  famous  Lives." 

II 

The  form  and  spirit  of  any  work,  artistic  or  literary,  de- 
pend upon  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  produced  ;  first, 
its  material  environment ;  next,  the  predominant  ideas  of 
the  epoch,  the  mental  atmosphere  which  surrounds  the 
worker ;  and,  finally,  the  personal  character  of  the  individ- 
ual producer.  Some  preliminary  study  of  these  conditions 
is  necessary  to  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  Vasari's 

Lives." 

In  1546,  when  Vasari  began  to  classify  those  notes  and 
memoranda  which  he  had,  moved  by  love  for  these  our 
artists,"  been  collecting  since  his  boyhood,  the  creative  im- 
pulse of  the  Eenaissance  was  already  exhausted.  Painting, 
which  had  culminated  between  the  years  1470  and  1540, 
was  on  the  decline,  except  in  Venice.  The  great  masters, 
save  Michelangelo,  had  passed  away.  Raphael  had  been 
dead  twenty-four  years,  Leonardo  twenty-two,  Correggio 
twelve,  Andrea  del  Sarto  fifteen ;  Giulio  Romano  died  in 
the  year  that  Vasari  commenced  his  work,  Perino  del 
Vaga,  and  del  Piombo  in  the  following  year.  Benvenuto 
Cellini  was  working  for,  and  bickering  with,  the  Pope. 
Beccafumi,  Garofalo,  Giovanni  da  Udine,  Daniele  da  Vol- 
terra  were  painting  ;  Paul  Veronese  and  Tintoretto  were  still 
young.  Sansovino  and  Titian  were  in  their  vigorous  old 
age,  and  Michelangelo  had  finished  the  "Last  Judgment" 
only  five  years  before. 


XXX 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


There  was  no  lack  of  art  patrons  in  spite  of  the  invasion, 
pillage,  and  sack  that  Italy  had  suffered  ever  since  the  first 
French  expedition  in  1494.  The  duel  between  France  and 
Spain  had  ended  in  the  victory  of  the  latter,  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Peninsula  was  compara- 
tively quiet.  Naples  was  cowed  ;  Cosimo,  in  Florence,  had 
made  a  desolation  and  called  it  peace  ;  Siena  was  guarded 
by  a  Spanish  garrison  ;  Venice,  though  robbed  of  her  sub- 
ject cities,  was  still  free,  and  Milan  was  tranquil  under  the 
Spaniard's  rule.  The  Farnese  were  all-powerful  in  Eome, 
•Parma,  and  Piacenza,  and  the  Estensi  in  Ferrara,  the  Gon- 
zaghe  in  Mantua,  and  the  della  Eovere  in  Urbino  were  en- 
joying their  duchies  under  imperial  protection. 

Though  the  spirit  of  Italy  had  been  transformed  there 
were  few  visible  signs  of  the  great  change  that  had  come  to 
her.  The  Inquisition  was  peering  through  the  eyelet-holes 
of  its  mask  at  MS.  and  printed  book,  and  even  painted 
panel  or  canvas.  Men  had  begun  to  adopt  the  sombre 
Spanish  habit  as  though  they  mourned  the  loss  of  political 
and  intellectual  liberty  ;  elegant  poets  made  gentle,  elegiac 
moan  in  impeccable  Latin  verse  over  the  national  servitude  ; 
and  certain  cities — Prato,  Florence,  and  Eome — still  showed 
the  scars  of  Spanish  torch  and  steel.  The  majority  of  Ital- 
ians, however,  feeling  that  Italy  was  the  queen  of  the  civ- 
ilized world,  were  convinced  that  she  had  conquered  her 
conquerors,  and  from  this  belief  sprang  a  moral  serenity,  a 
preoccupation  with  the  arts  and  letters  in  the  face  of  na- 
tional disaster,  while  a  vague  cosmopolitanism  replaced  the 
old  regional  patriotism  of  the  republics. 

The  Italians  had  eaten  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge. 
In  the  realm  of  art  and  literature  they  had  ceased  to  feel 
keenly  and  begun  to  reflect ;  judgment  was  checking  im- 
pulse, the  force  of  sentiment  was  yielding  to  the  dominion 
of  criticism,  analysis  was  paralyzing  action,  and  when  calcu- 
lation had  definitely  triumphed  over  emotion,  science,  the 
last  manifestation  of  Italian  genius,  appeared. 

It  was  the  good  fortune  of  Vasari  to  live  and  write  at 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xxxi 


a  time  when  the  creative  epoch  was  passing  away  and  an 
age  of  inquiry  had  just  commenced.  By  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  fine  arts  had  run  their  course  (except 
in  Venice)  ;  but  though  the  giants  had  come  and  gone  and 
left  behind  them  academies,  schools,  imitators,  and  manner- 
ists, the  harvest  had  been  so  abundant  that  men  could  long 
enjoy  the  aftermath.  No  gloomy  forecast  of  future  artistic 
sterility  overshadows  Vasari's  pages,  he  is  as  free  from  de- 
pression as  he  is  from  self-consciousness.  It  must  also  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  plastic  feeling  was  developed  all  over 
Italy,  and  if  it  failed  in  one  direction  it  reappeared  in  an- 
other, thus  creating  an  illusive  appearance  of  perennial 
growth.  Vasari  saw  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  masters 
whose  arts  and  works  he  recorded  would  be  followed  by  a 
long  line  of  worthy  successors.  The  cosmopolitanism  which 
was  an  element  of  political  weakness  was  a  potent  factor 
in  a  history  of  art,  in  which  also  the  critical  spirit  which 
was  paralyzing  individual  endeavor  found  a  legitimate  and 
fruitful  field  of  action.  In  a  word,  the  stage  of  national 
evolution  which  was  unfavorable  to  artistic  production  was 
eminently  calculated  to  foster  an  analytical  study  of  such 
production. 

To  the  readers  of  Vasari  art  was  an  important  source  of 
personal  gratification  and  an  absorbing  intellectual  interest ; 
to  be  surrounded  by  its  various  manifestations  had  become  a 
part  of  the  Italian's  ideal  of  life,  and  the  historian  of  crafts- 
men who  had  so  greatly  increased  the  sum  of  human  happi- 
ness felt  assured  of  public  sympathy  with  his  work.  It  is 
superfluous  to  remind  the  reader  how  thoroughly  by  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  art  had  permeated  haman 
existence  ;  and  of  the  solidarity  of  feeling  which  united 
patrons,  public,  and  artists.  The  art  historian  therefore  was 
sure  of  his  audience,  he  was  under  no  pedagogic  necessity 
to  explain  or  instruct,  he  spoke  a  common  language  ;  a 
community  of  ideas  and  aspirations  bound  him  to  his 
readers  and  his  fellow-workers. 

Long  before  Vasari  turned  author  the  artists  had  written 


xxxii 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


of  their  own  craft.  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Raphael,  and  Ghi- 
berti,  Piero  della  Francesca,  Alberti,  and  Francesco  di 
Giorgio,  and  later,  Vignole,  Serlio,  and  Cellini,  had  pro- 
duced treatises,  technical,  descriptive,  mathematical,  and 
autobiographical ;  but  these  fragmentary  works,  written 
from  a  special  point  of  view,  could  afford  no  precedent  to 
Vasari  for  the  form  or  the  spirit  of  his  book. 

In  earlier  and  more  productive  times  eclecticism,  sympa- 
thetic comprehension  of  warring  aesthetic  ideals,  that  indis- 
pensable element  of  the  critic's  mental  equipment,  was  lack- 
ing. Enlightened  appreciation,  or  rather  true  art  criticism, 
had  just  begun  to  appear  in  the  work  of  Paolo  Giovio  and 
of  that  blackguardly  aesthete  Aretino,  who  averred  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  belong  to  the  guild  in  order  to  speak 
of  art  matters."  It  was  the  spirit  of  the  age,  of  its  exten- 
sion of  plastic  sympathies,  of  its  Catholic  enthusiasms  for 
varying  forms  of  art  that  Vasari  voiced  in  his  generous  ap- 
preciations of  artists,  schools,  and  manners. 

Ill 

Vasari,  who  left  long  and  minute  descriptions  of  the 
cold  and  commonplace  pictures  that  he  manufactured  by 
the  yard,  dismissed  the  Lives "  with  a  few  summary  no- 
tices. A  short  time  after  he  had  promised  the  Cardinal  to 
undertake  the  work  Vasari,  who  loved  effort  as  most  men 
love  ease,  put  his  notes  and  memoranda  together  and  took 
them  to  Paolo  Giovio.  The  genial  scholar,  after  much 
praise  of  them,  persuaded  the  painter  to  attempt  the  work 
himself,  assuring  him  that  he,  Giovio,  had  neither  the  his- 
torical data  nor  the  technical  knowledge  for  such  a  task, 
and  that  judging  from  the  notes  Vasari  had  brought  he 
would  succeed  admirably.  Encouraged  by  Caro,  Molza, 
and  Tolomei,  Giorgio  somewhat  reluctantly  began  the  work, 
and  the  following  year  sent  a  portion  of  it  to  Caro,  who 
wrote  to  Vasari  in  December  of  the  year  1547,  with  that 
kindliness  which  the  professional  writer  has  generally  shown 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xxxiii 


to  the  artist  who  ventures  to  use  the  pen.  In  this  let- 
ter Caro,  a  most  elegant  stylist  says  :  You  have  given  me 
much  pleasure,  in  letting  me  see  a  part  of  the  commentary 
that  you  have  written  on  the  artists.  I  have  read  it  with 
much  pleasure,  and  it  seems  to  me  worthy  to  be  read  by 
everyone  for  the  sake  of  the  memory  of  many  admirable 
men,  and  for  the  knowledge  of  many  things  and  various 
times  that  one  obtains  from  it ;  it  seems  to  me  also  well 
written  in  a  good  style.  I  only  desire  that  the  place  of  cer- 
tain words  should  be  changed,  and  of  certain  verbs  that 
are  put  at  the  ends  of  the  sentences  for  the  sake  of  elegance, 
which  weary  me.  In  a  work  like  this  one  should  write  as 
one  talks,  using  one's  own  language,  not  the  metaphorical  or 
the  unusual,  employing  current  rather  than  far-fetched 
phrases.  And  this  is  done  only  in  a  few  places  which  in 
re-reading  I  will  note,  and  which  you  can  easily  correct. 
As  for  the  rest,  I  rejoice  with  you  that  you  have  done  a 
noble  and  useful  work." 

In  the  same  year,  1547,  the  Lives"  were  completed  and 
nothing  remained  but  to  put  them  into  good  shape."  At 
this  time  Vasari  made  the  acquaintance  of  Don  Gian  Matteo 
Faetani,  Abbot  of  Santa  Maria  di  Scolca  in  Eimini,  ^'  a  let- 
tered and  ingenious  person "  who  promised  to  correct  the 
work  and  to  have  it  copied  by  one  of  his  monks  who  was 
an  excellent  caligraph.  Three  years  later  the  first  edition 
of  the  "  Lives  "  appeared,  published  by  Lorenzo  Torrentini, 
in  Florence.  In  1566-67,  during  a  leave  of  absence  given 
him  by  the  duke,  Vasari  revisited  many  Italian  towns,  and 
afterward  corrected  and  amplified  the  first  edition  of  the 
"  Lives,"  of  which  a  second  edition,  printed  by  Giunti, 
was  ready  in  1568.  He  had  taken  Caro's  advice  and 
adopted  a  familiar  and  colloquial  style,  but  the  familiar 
style  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  not  that  of  the  nineteenth. 

There  is  in  all  the  products  of  the  Eenaissance  something 
of  deliberation,  stateliness,  and  dignity  ;  labor-saving  meth- 
ods were  unknown  ;  time  was  not  economized.  Men  had 
not  yet  adopted  the  short  cut  in  literature  ;  they  liked  fine 


xxxiv 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


periods  and  willingly  sacrificed  vivacity  to  nobility.  Our 
popular  journalistic  style  would  have  seemed  vulgar  and 
cheap  to  them.  We  could  easily  condense  half  a  dozen  of 
their  phrases  into  one  short  sentence,  but  to  the  writers  of 
the  Kenaissance,  accustomed  to  appeal  to  the  ear  as  well  as  to 
the  eye,  and  to  the  rhythm  of  nicely  balanced  periods,  such 
a  sentence  would  seem  as  euphonious  as  the  sharp  crack  of 
a  whip  or  the  sputter  of  a  packet  of  fire-crackers. 

Life  was  more  spacious  then  ;  men's  minds,  like  their 
houses,  were  not  so  crowded  as  they  have  become  since,  and 
he  who  had  wisdom  to  impart,  or  a  story  to  tell,  was  not 
obliged  to  boil  it  down  to  an  essence,  or  serve  it  in  capsules. 
One  was  introduced  to  a  topic  much  as  one  was  presented  to 
a  prince ;  literature  had  its  monumental  staircases  and  its 
lofty  ante-chambers,  its  guards  and  lackeys.  A  theme  was 
approached  gradually  and  the  reader  prepared  to  receive  it. 
Naturally  enough,  then,  Vasari  was  liberal  of  prefaces  and 
introductions ;  each  life  was  preceded  by  reflections,  gen- 
erally of  an  ethical  character,  all  marked  by  good  common- 
sense  and  a  not  too-lofty  moral  standard.  It  may  be  that 
''the  ingenious  and  lettered  Abbot  of  Santa  Maria  di  Scolca" 
was  responsible  for  some  of  these  sententious  platitudes, 
though  they  do  not  differ  either  in  style  or  character  from 
the  rest  of  the  work. 

But  this  deliberation  does  not  imply  lack  of  movement  or 
color,  the  "  Lives"  are  filled  with  them  ;  the  language  is  that 
of  Florence,  with  its  racy  colloquialisms,  its  contractions,  its 
proverbial  philosophy.  The  comparisons  and  illustrations 
are  drawn  from  contemporary  Tuscan  life.  Vasari  takes  it 
for  granted  that  his  reader  has  loitered  and  gossiped  under 
the  shrine  lamps  on  the  famous  corners  (Cmiti)  of  Flor- 
ence, has  caught  and  caged  crickets  on  Ascension  Day,  has 
crunched  wafers  on  the  Calzoleria,  and  has  heard  the  cica- 
das shrilling  among  the  thick-tufted  trees  in  the  villa  gar- 
dens on  hot  afternoons.  So  penetrated  are  they  with  the 
Florentine  atmosphere  that  in  reading  these  pages  one 
seems  to  hear  the  sonorous,  cadenced,  Tuscan  speech  ;  to 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


XXXV 


smell  the  odor  of  fried  cheese,  tanned  leather,  wood-smoke, 
and  for7ni  that  haunts  the  narrow  streets  of  the  old  quarters  ; 
to  see  again  the  frowning  house-walls,  with  their  iron-barred 
windows  and  their  nail-studded  doors,  the  lintels  carved 
with  rows  of  shields  or  pots  of  lilies  and  carnations,  and 
here  and  there,  ''like  a  downf alien  bit  of  the  sky," a  lunette 
of  blue  and  white  Robbia-ware. 

What  warmth  and  vitality  this  vivid  local  color  imparts  to 
the  biographies  !  With  Vasari  and  his  people  we  visit  every 
corner  of  Florence  ;  we  climb  the  stairs  of  the  Palazzo  Vec- 
chio,  we  hobnob  with  Duke  Cosimo  in  his  study  among  his 
treasures,  we  chaffer  for  eggs  and  fruit  in  the  old  market, 
we  watch  the  fight  between  Republicans  and  Mediceans  in 
the  square,  we  sup  in  the  Piazza  of  the  Nunziata  with  all 
the  madcap  artists  in  Florence,  we  walk  in  the  funeral 
procession  of  Michelangelo  to  Santa  Croce,  we  peep  into 
Giotto's  house  in  the  Via  de'  Servi,  and  enter  Donatello^s 
hottega  near  the  cathedral,  we  loiter  in  Ghirlandajo's  shop 
in  the  Calzoleria,  we  pace  the  cloisters  of  San  Marco  with 
Fra  Angelico  ;  the  convent  doors  open  for  us  and  we  lean 
over  Sister  Plautilla  Nelli's  easel ;  the  Medici  palace  has  no 
secrets  for  us,  and  we  see  Duke  Alexander  in  full  armor 
and  state-mantle  posing  for  Vasari,  or  the  young  Catherine 
de'  Medici,  paint-brush  in  hand,  chasing  the  good  Giorgio 
down  the  long  corridor ;  we  can  study  Masaccio  with  the 
young  painters  in  the  quiet  chapel  of  the  Brancacci,  and  in 
the  great  hall  of  the  old  palace,  while  the  factions  are  fight- 
ing outside  we  can  watch  the  students  dividing  Michel- 
angelo's cartoon  for  the  battle  of  Pisa,  into  coveted  frag- 
ments ;  the  young  Raphael,  just  come  from  Urbino  with  let- 
ters from  his  duchess  to  the  Gonfaloniere,  leads  us  to  the 
palace  of  his  hosts  in  the  Via  de'  Ginori,  and  gorgeous  in 
brocade  and  jewels  Leonardo  da  Vinci  rides  by  on  one  of  his 
fiery  horses. 

Michelet  defined  history  as  a  resurrection  of  the  past. 
With  Vasari  the  historian's  task  is  made  easy,  and  the  an. 
thor  speaks  so  well  for  himself  that  comment  often  seems 


xxxvi 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


superfluous,  almost  impertinent.  He  possessed  the  power, 
which  was  denied  to  so  many  of  his  learned  contemporaries, 
of  making  his  people  seem  alive  and  real.  It  is  this  vital- 
ity that  distinguishes  his  biographies  from  those  of  Vespa- 
siano  and  Paolo  Giovio,  and  which,  in  spite  of  unscientific 
method  and  looseness  of  statement,  makes  them  valuable 
to-day.  If  we  compare  them  with  other  works  of  the  same 
kind,  with  Condivi's  biography  of  Michelangelo,  which  is 
devoid  of  literary  merit,  with  the  Dialogo  di  Pittura  of 
Paolo  Pini,  overweighted  with  souvenirs  of  antiquity,  with 
the  Nohilissima  Pittura  of  Michelangelo  Bindo,  who  de- 
scribed Phidias  and  Praxiteles  as  painters,  and  attributed 
Leonardo's  Cena  "  to  Mantegna,  we  shall  easily  perceive 
the  immense  superiority  of  Vasari's  work  ;  only  the  notes 
of  the  Venetian,  Marco  Antonio  Michiel,  can  be  compared 
with  it  for  justness  of  perception  and  purity  of  taste. 

Vasari's  easy  way  of  treating  his  material  is  a  stumbling- 
block  of  offence  to  his  critics.  He  seems  to  desire  to  con- 
ceal rather  than  to  make  known  the  sources  from  whence  he 
drew  his  data.  This  was  the  fashion  of  the  age,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  conceive  how  shocked  an  Italian  of  the  Eenais- 
sance  would  have  been  by  one  of  our  pages  of  the  Lives, 
pages  bristling  with  foot-notes,  crowded  with  citations,  where 
fact  meets  fact,  and  authorities  pro  and  C07i  are  opposed  in 
battle  array.  What  he  required  of  his  author  was  an  artis- 
tic general  effect,  he  occupied  no  aggressive  or  skeptical  at- 
titude, he  read  to  be  diverted,  interested,  moved,  not  to  be 
supplied  with  exact  information,  or  controversial  weapons  ; 
in  a  word  he  read,  he  did  not  read  up.  Eealism  has  made 
so  many  strides  in  the  last  three  hundred  years,  and  the  sci- 
entific method  has  almost  destroyed  the  artistic  method ; 
it  is  difficult  to  realize  that  in  the  sixteenth  century 
what  the  reader  demanded  of  the  writer  was  sympathetic 
comprehension,  artistic  presentation,  liberal  cultivation ; 
that  the  public  desired  results  not  processes,  and  the  author 
was  not  constantly  challenged  for  his  intellectual  counter- 
sign or  incessantly  required  to  produce  his  literary  passport. 


GIOllGIO  VASARI 


xxxvii 


If  by  any  stretch  of  the  imagination  we  can  imagine 
Vasari  showing  Giovio  a  modern,  up-to-date  edition  of  his 
''Lives/'  the  old  scholar  would  have  exclaimed,  How  now, 
Giorgio  mio,  what  peevish  pedantry  is  this  ?  Away  with 
these  impertinent  notes  which  fret  the  margins  in  such  un- 
handsome fashion.  Blind  me  not  with  the  dust  from  all 
these  archives  and  thrust  not  these  crabbed  MSS.  under 
my  nose.  I'll  believe  in  thy  learning,  lad,  without  these 
commentaries  which  smell  most  consumedly  of  the  lamp. 
Would'st  thou  have  me  sweat  with  thee  in  thy  labors  ?  Give 
me  thy  dish  dressed,  man.  Fve  no  stomach  for  raw  victual. 
I  am  like  one  who  has  been  bidden  to  a  feast  and  who  is 
taken  anhungered  to  the  kitchen  to  watch  mine  host  pluck 
the  capon  and  skim  the  pot.  'Twas  a  fair  tome  thou  didst 
promise  me,  not  the  makings  of  such  an  one.'' 

Vasari  therefore  did  not  occupy  the  defensive  attitude  of 
the  modern  historian  or  biographer,  but  he  was  a  tireless 
compiler,  a  student  of  books  and  documents  and  works  of 
art  as  well  as  of  men.  He  did  not  shrink  from  the  study  of 
those  "  records  and  writings  that  had  been  left  as  a  prey  to 
dust  and  for  the  food  of  worms  ;  "  in  Florence,  he  consulted 
the  Tuscan  archives,  the  book  of  the  Academy  of  San  Luca, 
an  old  chronicle  from  the  library  of  Santa  Maria  Novella, 
and  the  documents  of  the  cathedral ;  in  other  towns  he 
studied  the  ledgers  of  the  various  public  buildings,  church- 
es, town-halls,  and  hospitals,  the  records  of  judicial  proceed- 
ings, and  the  papers  of  the  notaries. 

He  spent  much  time  in  the  inspection  of  the  works  of 
art  themselves,  and  his  collections  of  drawings,  ornamented 
with  borders  by  his  own  hand,  contained  some  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  the  old  masters.  He  studied  monuments, 
epitaphs,  monograms,  and  inscriptions.  He  cited  Dante, 
Giovanni  Villani,  Boccaccio,  Sacchetti,  Bindo  da  Forli, 
Manetti,  Poliziano,  Ariosto,  Caro,  Bembo,  della  Oasa,  Sca- 
liger,  Budseus,  Sannazzaro,  Plutarch,  Vitruvius  and  other 
antique  authors,  besides  the  literary  works  of  the  artists. 

Vasari  was  weak  in  his  chronology  ;  he  often  inverted 


XXXV  iii 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


dates,  he  omitted  to  cite  liis  authorities,  he  added  certain 
stories,  racy  bits  of  gossip,  sometimes  even  of  scandal  that 
have  not  been  substantiated  by  documents,  he  often  record- 
ed traditions  as  facts  ;  he  was  also  too  credulous,  too  ready 
to  accept  information  from  any  source.  It  is  only  fair  to 
add  that  he  corrected  many  mistakes  and  modified  many 
of  his  statements  in  the  second  edition  of  the  Lives.  He 
has  also  been  accused  of  plagiarism,  because  in  this  same 
second  edition  he  incorporated  the  work  in  which  As- 
canio  Condivi  completed  and  corrected  Vasari's  own  life 
of  Michelangelo.  In  the  Renaissance  plastic  and  literary 
material  was  common  property  among  fellow-craftsmen  to  a 
much  greater  degree  than  it  is  to-day,  and  the  line  of  de- 
marcation between  assimilation  and  appropriation  had  not 
been  sharply  drawn. 

It  is  no  new  thing  to  disparage  Vasari ;  in  the  sixteenth 
century  he  was  attacked  by  Condivi,  by  Zuccheri,  and  the 
Caracci ;  to-day  the  special  student,  who,  aided  by  all  the 
modern  discoveries  and  appliances,  has  corrected  a  date  or 
an  attribution,  makes  short  work  of  his  author.  M.  Bour- 
get  finds  his  biographies  des  esquisses  informes."  The 
writer  of  the  diffuse  and  vague  Sensations  d'ltalie" 
is  offended  by  Vasari^s  lack  of  concentration,  his  tenden- 
cy to  spin  out  his  descriptions,  and  to  retard  action  by 
undue  elaboration  of  detail.  It  may  be  superfluous  to  re- 
mind M.  Bourget's  readers  that  these  defects  of  style  are 
often  possessed  of  sufficient  charm  in  themselves  to  com- 
mand admiration  even  when  unaccompanied  by  Vasari*s 
lucidity,  his  talent  for  telling  a  story  straightly  and  simply, 
his  virile  grasp  of  a  mass  of  material,  and  his  capacity  for 
infusing  life  into  his  characters. 

The  historian  trained  in  the  philosophical  school  can 
justly  reproach  the  Aretine  with  his  ignorance  of  the  in- 
fluence of  environment  and  his  habit  of  ascribing  manifes- 
tations of  exceptional  capacity  entirely  to  individual  genius, 
but  even  the  historian  will  admit  Vasari's  knowledge  of  evo- 
lution in  styles.     If  it  is  easy  to  point  out  the  defects  of 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xxxix 


our  author,  it  is  puerile  to  judge  him  by  the  standards  of 
to-day,  and  to  expect  of  him  the  method  which  is  the 
result  of  a  much  later  stage  of  intellectual  development. 
A  proper  critical  appreciation  of  his  work  is  no  easy  task 
however.  To  accomplish  it  Vasari  was  obliged  to  unite  the 
special  gifts  of  scholar,  artist,  critic,  story-teller,  and  man 
of  letters,  and  it  is  owing  to  this  rare  combination  of  quali- 
ties that  Vasari's  work,  with  all  its  mistakes  and  lacunce,  will 
live  as  long  as  the  masters  to  whom  he  devoted  his  pen. 

No  one  can  enjoy  the  mental  companionship  of  Vasari 
without  being  impressed  with  the  intellectual  rectitude  of 
the  man,  his  many  virtues.  Foremost  is  his  love  for  his 
own  art  and  his  filial  reverence,  even  tenderness  for  the 
great  masters  of  it.  The  catholicity  of  his  taste  and  his 
liberal  appreciation  of  all  forms  of  good  art  is  equally  notice- 
able. He  could  admire  the  tiny  miniatures  of  Giulio  Clovio 
and  the  heroic  figures  of  Michelangelo;  Fra  Angelico's  in- 
effable Madonnas  and  Pollajuolo^s  muscular  nudities  receive 
even-handed  justice  from  him.  The  silver  altar-front  is  as 
carefully  described  as  the  Moses,  no  achievement  is  too 
vast,  no  work  of  art  too  minute  to  escape  his  notice  ;  he  does 
not  neglect  the  sculptor  of  colossi,  or  forget  the  embroiderer 
of  vestments  ;  he  is  hospitable  to  the  stranger,  ^'  Divers, 
Flemish  Artists"  were  understood  and  appreciated  by  him, 
and  he  was  courteous  to  the  women  who  had  handled  brush 
and  chisel — it  must  be  confessed  Avithout  any  signal  success. 
Tlie  justness  of  his  criticism  was  only  equalled  by  his  mod- 
esty. When  we  consider  how  large  a  field  he  covered,  and 
how  seldom  he  allowed  personal  feeling  to  bias  his  judg- 
ments, we  may  surely  place  impartiality  in  the  list  of  his  vir- 
tues. To  Perugino,  Pinturicchio  and  Bazzi  he  was  unjust ; 
to  Cellini  he  is  as  fair  as  though  there  were  no  ill-feeling 
between  them.  Cellini,  who  had  attacked  him  savagely, 
made  a  most  unsavory  reference  to  Vasari  which  was 
probably  as  near  the  truth  as  was  Cellini's  spelling  of  our 
author's  name  (Georgetto  Vassellario  );  we  have  only  to 
compare  his  work  with  that  of  other  art-critics  to  note  how 


xl 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


seldom  his  estimate  of  tlie  character  of  the  man  affected  his 
appreciation  of  the  product  of  the  artist. 

He  repeated,  without  examination  or  preliminary  in- 
vestigation, many  idle  stories  about  his  contemporaries,  yet 
he  is  benevolence  itself,  if  we  contrast  him  with  many  of 
his  fellows  ;  there  was  much  jealousy  among  artists  then  in 
that  period  of  perfected  processes  and  over-production,  and 
much  of  the  detraction  that  results  from  the  undue  develop- 
ment of  the  critical  faculties.  Is  the  artistic  and  literary 
gossip  of  three  centuries  later  quite  devoid  of  venom  ? 

In  Vasari,  the  gentler  virtues  of  the  Renaissance  find 
expression.  We  are  apt  to  forget,  in  studying  the  high- 
ly colored  dramatic  episodes  of  this  transitional  age,  that 
Italy  was  not  entirely  peopled  with  hravi,  humanists,  con- 
dottieri,  buffoons,  dukes,  abbesses  and  cardinals  ;  that  there 
were  thousands  of  every-day  honest  people  who  lived  soberly 
and  worked  hard,  and  found  their  pleasure  in  ways  that 
made  others  no  poorer  or  sadder.  Vasari^s  was  a  burgher 
ideal ;  to  work  faithfully,  to  live  frugally,  to  economize 
money,  time,  and  health,  to  look  sharply  after  the  honor 
and  well-being  of  your  own  family,  to  drive  a  hard  bargain, 
to  own  land  and  to  enjoy  political  honors,  to  live  on  good 
terms  with  the  church  and  with  your  neighbor,  and  to  re- 
vere your  prince  no  matter  how  unworthy  of  reverence  he 
might  be,  was  the  code  of  the  artisan-courtier,  a  new  type, 
born  of  the  fusion  of  old  and  new  conditions,  standing 
mid-way  between  the  sturdy  Republican  Donatello  and  the 
supple,  politic  Giulio  Romano.  At  the  same  time,  and  in 
apparent  contradiction  to  this  lourgeois  standard,  an  idea 
obtained  that  there  was  a  special  moral  code  for  the  artist, 
that  he  was  exempt  from  the  laws  that  govern  the  common 
herd.  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  had  said  of  Fra  Filippo 
that  ^^rare  geniuses  were  forms  of  light  and  not  beasts  of 
burden. Benvenuto  Cellini  evidently  considered  that  he 
stood  above  ordinary  legal  restrictions,  and  the  Pope  tacitly 
admitted  this  to  be  the  case.  Vasari  took  a  temperate  and 
common-sense  view  of  the  artistes  privileges ;  he  defended 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xli 


his  love  of  solitude  and  maintained  his  social  independence, 
but  he  absolutely  condemned  violence  and  dissoluteness, 
and  was  rather  unnecessarily  severe  on  foppery  and  pre- 
sumption. 

There  are  few  traces  of  the  moral  hebetude  of  Italy  in 
Vasari's  work,  it  is  rather  by  what  he  omits  than  what  he 
recorded  that  his  ethical  sense  must  be  apprehended.  The 
crimes  of  the  Popes,  the  hideous  domestic  dramas  of  his 
patrons,  the  Medici,  the  scandals  and  assassinations  of  the 
various  ducal  courts  are  not  mentioned  in  his  pages.  A 
monster  like  Alessandro  is  called  the  amiable  duke  ;  despots 
like  Cosimo  are  magnificent  princes.  We  look  in  vain  like- 
wise for  any  record  of  those  splendid  acts  of  courage  and  self- 
sacrifice  which  lighten  the  gloom  of  this  melancholy  epoch  of 
Italian  history.  Indomitable  Florence  is  besieged  by  the 
veteran  armies  of  three  nations  ;  heroic  Siena  starves  un- 
yielding within  her  walls,  the  exiles  speak  and  act  as  Cato 
might  have  done  ;  Vasari  is  silent ;  he  had  no  love  for  the 
liberty  that  died  so  hard.  It  was  not  he  who  wrote  to 
Michelangelo,  it  is  time  to  think  of  armi  (arms)  not  of 
marmi"  (marbles).  He  feels  no  generous  sense  of  outrage 
as  he  writes  of  the  sack  of  Rome  or  Prato,  and  he  refers 
casually  to  events  and  incidents  that  even  to-day  stir  the 
reader's  blood. 

Was  Vasari,  like  so  many  modern  critics,  dazzled  by  the 
outward  brilliance  of  this  civilization  which  cultivated  the 
minds  and  tastes  of  men  while  it  left  their  hearts  and  char- 
acters ferocious  and  undisciplined  ?  Was  the  conscience  for 
which  we  look  in  vain  among  what  Taine  called  these 
intelligent  wolves lacking  in  Vasari  also  ?  Did  he  ac- 
quiesce rn  this  reign  of  might  without  even  a  mental  pro- 
test ?  If  he  did  we  can  find  many  excuses  for  him  in  his 
moral  environment.  The  Italian  religion  was  a  stranger 
to  reason,  to  feeling,  to  conduct ;  it  was  merely  a  mental 
habit  which  imposed  certain  practices  and  proscribed  cer- 
tain thoughts.  Before  Vasari's  death  it  had  hardened  in- 
to that  mixture  of  hypocrisy  and  formalism  that  arrested 


xlii 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


Italian  development  for  many  centuries.  The  hnmanists, 
after  the  Catholic  reaction,  had  become  mere  writers,  and 
were  no  longer  thinkers.  Philosophy,  which  in  virile  souls 
so  often  stands  in  the  stead  of  religion,  was  silenced,  and 
stoicism,  the  moral  stimulus  of  strong  men,  was  powerless 
to  affect  the  mass  of  the  Italians.  In  spite  of  the  reform  in 
the  Church,  crimes  of  violence  were  on  the  increase  when 
compared  with  the  Middle  Ages  or  the  early  Kenaissance. 
To  the  old  elements  of  discord  between  families  and  indi- 
viduals the  invasion  of  the  Spaniards  had  added  false  ideas 
of  punctilio  in  regard  to  precedence,  place,  titles,  and,  above 
all,  in  love  affairs,  which  were  fruitful  causes  of  brawls. 
Keligious  persecution,  which  had  languished  and  almost 
disappeared  during  the  revival  of  arts  and  letters,  returned 
with  renewed  terrors  at  the  bidding  of  the  Inquisition  ;  the 
excessive  harshness  of  the  penal  code,  the  barbarous  pun- 
ishments for  trifling  offences,  and  the  horrors  of  judicial 
procedure,  testify  to  the  underlying  ferocity  of  this  urbane 
and  cultivated  people. 

Vasari,  who  had  grown  up  as  the  protege  of  merciless  and 
dissolute  young  princes,  and  passed  his  life  in  the  tainted 
atmosphere  of  the  ducal  and  papal  courts,  found  a  perma- 
nent incitement  to  virtue  in  the  kindness  of  his  own  heart 
and  in  the  example  set  him  by  the  men  of  his  own  class.  His 
were  not  the  heroic  virtues,  the  love  of  liberty,  the  senti- 
ment of  patriotism  ;  indeed,  patriotism  in  any  large  sense 
had  never  existed  in  Italy,  but  was  replaced  by  civic  or 
sectional  pride  ;  he  was  no  saint  or  devotee.  AVe  have  no 
reason  to  believe  that  he  was  specially  courageous.  His  was 
rather  the  Italian  corraggio,  dogged  perseverance  in  the  face 
of  discomfort  and  difficulty,  the  patient  fortitude  which 
student  and  artist  must  constantly  exercise  in  the  endurance 
of  physical  ill-being  and  moral  discouragement ;  he  loved 
what  Ghiberti  called  the  sweat  of  virtue ; and  in  his 
Luca  della  Robbia  he  eloquently  preached  to  the  art  student 
the  gospel  of  hard  work  and  heroic  endeavor. 

If  he  made  no  mention  of  his  patrons'  crimes,  at  least  he 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xliii 


made  no  attempt  to  palliate  them  or  apologize  for  them. 
Gratitude  was  a  strong  feeling  with  Vasari ;  his  sense  of 
obligation  was  as  keen  as  that  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  the 
Medici  and  some  of  the  least  estimable  Italian  princes  had 
always  been  kind  and  liberal  friends  to  him,  which  makes 
his  reticence  in  regard  to  their  misdeeds  more  pardonable. 
Their  relations  to  art  and  artists  were  admirable,  and  in  a 
history  of  art  they  deserved  honorable  mention  ;  and  it  is 
owing  to  this  sane  and  manly  optimism  that  the  lives  of  the 
artists  did  not  become  a  mere  chronique  sca7iclaleusej  like 
too  many  biographies  of  all  times. 

As  in  the  work  of  many  other  authors,  Madame  de 
Lafayette  for  instance,  who  write  for  and  under  a  despot, 
much  can  be  read  between  the  lines,  and  it  is  rather  from 
Vasari's  omissions  than  from  his  statements  that  we  can 
guess  at  his  own  opinion.  Michelangelo  is  never  criticised 
for  his  harsh  and  biting  speeches,  but  Raphael  is  constantly 
praised  for  his  sweetness  and  graciousness,  and  Vasari,  like 
most  healthy -minded  and  large-hearted  people,  found  it 
pleasanter  to  commend  goodness  than  to  denounce  evil. 

IV 

It  is  an  ungrateful  task  to  consider  our  author  as  painter  ; 
he  is  one  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  the  rapid  de- 
cadence of  the  Roman  school  ;  a  hard  worker,  educated 
among  master  -  pieces,  enjoying  the  example  and  counsels 
of  great  artists,  with  a  genuine  love  and  appreciation 
of  art  in  its  noblest  forms,  his  pictures  are  cold  and  char- 
acterless ;  they  possess  no  personality,  no  parti  pris  ;  as 
reminiscences  of  finer  works  they  are  uninteresting,  and 
Vasari  in  them  does  not  even  attain  to  the  dignity  of  a 
mannerist,  for  when  not  actually  a  plagiarist  he  is  but  an 
imitator. 

He  was  one  of  the  worst  of  those  epigoni  who  consulted 
only  the  masters  and  omitted  to  study  nature,  who  copied 
formulce  until  they  lost  their  capacity  for  seeing  the  real 


xliv 


GIOKGIO  VASARI 


world  with  their  own  eyes.  In  the  hands  of  greater  men 
the  means  of  expression  had  been  so  perfected  and  were  so 
easily  attainable  that  art  in  the  hands  of  lesser  men  had 
lost  all  personal  quality  and  meaning.  The  facility,  inven- 
tion, and  the  tendency  toward  generalization  of  types  char- 
acteristic of  the  Roman  school  became  in  its  decadent 
followers  abstraction,  conventionality,  and  insincere  rep- 
etition. The  phenomena  of  artistic  degeneration  appear 
at  the  same  time — the  abuse  of  trompe  Vceil  j  improvisation, 
a  slap-dash  covering  of  great  canvases  without  preliminary 
study  ;  collaboration,  parcelling  out  the  work  among  many 
assistants  or  pupils ;  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence  of 
these  quick  and  easy  practices,  over-production. 

The  demoralization  of  art  in  Rome  was  precipitated  by 
unstable  social  conditions,  and  the  mushroom  character  of 
its  art-patrons.  There  society  was  constantly  changing,  a 
new  set  of  people  attained  money  and  position  for  a  brief 
period  under  each  successive  pope,  and  were  anxious  to 
enjoy  their  short  tenure  of  power.  These  patrons,  stimu- 
lated by  the  pontiff^s  example,  ordered  huge  decorative 
works  to  be  furnished  at  a  cheap  rate  and  within  limitations 
of  time  ;  very  often  the  artist  forfeited  a  certain  portion  of 
his  payment  if  the  paintings  were  not  finished  by  a  certain 
date  ;  what  was  required  of  him  was  show  and  magnificence, 
not  thought  or  feeling,  and  an  ostentatious  parade  of  rich 
ornament.  The  absence  of  any  spiritual  significance  in  the 
works  was  supplied  by  elaborate  allegories  and  far-fetched 
concetti ;  they  are  as  full  of  strained  allusions  as  any  Pe- 
trarchistic  sonnet.  Vasari^s  letters  teem  with  long  expla- 
nations of  the  inner  meaning  of  his  paintings.  Writing,  for 
example,  of  the  portrait  of  Duke  Alexander,  he  says  :  "  He 
is  in  full  armor  to  signify  that  he  is  ready  for  the  love  of 
his  country  to  defend  her  privately  and  publicly  ;  the  round 
form  of  the  bench  on  which  he  is  seated,  having  neither 
beginning  nor  end,  shows  that  his  will  be  a  perpetual  reign. 
.  .  .  there  is  also  a  mask  muzzled  with  certain  bandages 
which  stands  for  Volubility  to  show  that  this  unstable 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xlv 


people  is  bound  and  shut  up  by  the  fortress  built  by,  and 
the  love  that  the  aforesaid  people  bear  to.  His  Excellency. 
The  red  cloth  which  is  put  over  the  seat  shows  the  blood 
that  has  been  shed  by  those  who  rebelled  against  the  Me- 
dicean  house,  and  a  fold  of  it  covering  the  thigh  of  the 
armed  man  shows  that  the  house  of  Medici  has  bled  also 
in  the  death  of  Giuliano  and  the  wounds  of  Lorenzo  the 
Elder/^  There  are  pages  of  this  fustian  in  Vasari's  cor- 
respondence and  in  the  "  Ragionamenti  ; "  it  reaches  its 
highest  degree  of  absurdity  in  his  description  of  the  frescoes 
of  the  cupola  of  the  Duomo,  which  reads  like  a  kind  of 
artistico-theological  inenu. 

Another  cause  of  artistic  degeneration  was  the  confused 
ideals  of  the  time,  the  eclecticism  so  favorable  to  the  art 
critic.  It  is  a  dangerous  thing  for  a  painter  to  aim  at  "  the 
coloring  of  Titian,  the  design  of  Michelangelo."  Art  is  a 
jealous  goddess,  and  her  votary  cannot  worsliip  at  many 
shrines.  The  painter  of  the  late  sixteenth  century,  be- 
wildered by  his  rich  inheritance,  grasped  at  too  much  and 
missed  the  essential.  He  tried  to  combine  the  chiaroscuro 
of  Leonardo,  the  composition  of  Raphael,  the  movements 
of  Michelangelo,  and  the  morbidezza  of  Correggio  ;  naturally 
the  result  of  such  ambitious  eclecticism  was  loss  of  person- 
ality and  artistic  impotence. 

Vasari  occupies  a  far  more  honorable  place  as  architect ; 
the  faQade  of  the  palace  of  the  Uffizi  is  imposing,  its  in- 
terior is  well  calculated  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
built,  and  the  staircases  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio  have  been 
specially  praised  by  Piacenza  the  architect. 

V 

Vasari  in  his  Autobiography"  has  told  us  everything 
about  himself  but  that  which  we  most  desire  to  know.  F ort- 
unately  a  whole  series  of  letters  has  been  collected  and 
published  which  enables  us  to  follow  his  career  year  by  year, 
and  which  supplements  the  lacun(B  in  the  "  Life." 


xlvi 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


Giorgio  Vasari  was  born  in  1511,  in  the  hill-town  of 
Arezzo,  the  birthplace  of  Petrarch.  In  his  Life  "  of  his 
kinsman,  Luca  Signorelli,  Vasari  has  given  us  a  glimpse  of 
his  childhood,  showing  iis  the  lordly  old  painter,  dressed 
like  a  prince,  looking  at  the  drawings  with  which  Giorgino 
had  spoiled  his  school-books,  and  advising  Vasari's  parents 
to  let  him  study  art.  Apparently  they  did  so,  and  the 
child  spent  his  time  working  under  Guglielmo  di  Marsiglia 
(Guillaume  de  Marcillat),  and  copying  the  works  of  the  Giot- 
teschi  in  the  churches  of  Arezzo.  Meantime  his  literary  edu- 
cation was  not  neglected,  and  the  Aretine  poet,  Messer  Gio- 
vanni Pollastra,  who  was  an  excellent  and  useful  friend  to 
Vasari,  urged  him  forward  over  the  thorny  paths  of  learning 
with  such  speed  that  at  the  age  of  nine  Giorgino  could  repeat 
many  books  of  the  '^^^^neid^^  by  heart.  This  accomplish- 
ment was  displayed  with  great  effect,  when  in  1523,  Silvio 
Passerini,  Cardinal  of  Oortona,  stopped  at  Arezzo,  on  his  way 
to  Florence,  where  he  had  been  appointed  guardian  of  the 
two  Medicean  princes,  Ippolito  and  Alessandro,  by  their 
cousin.  Pope  Clement  VII.  When  Antonio  Vasari  went  to 
pay  his  respects  to  his  kinsman  Passerini,  the  small  Giorgio 
was  taken  with  him,  and  in  this  illustrious  company  the 
erudite  infant  recited  the  larger  part  of  the  "^neid^^  (the 
Cardinal  was  apparently  in  no  hurry  to  reach  Florence),  and 
showed  his  collection  of  drawings.  Passerini  was  sufficiently 
impressed  to  offer  to  take  the  boy  to  Florence,  where  he  could 
study  to  much  better  advantage  than  in  Arezzo.  This  offer 
was  accepted,  Vasari  remained  three  years  in  Florence  and 
began  his  artistic  career  under  the  pleasantest  conditions ; 
he  was  a  pupil  of  Michelangelo,  the  humanities  were  not 
neglected,  as  he  passed  two  hours  of  each  day  in  study  with 
the  young  princes  Ippolito  and  Alessandro,  and  their  tutor, 
the  learned  Pierio.  A  little  later  he  studied  with  Baccio 
Bandinelli  and  formed  that  friendship  with  Francesco  Sal- 
viati  that  was  to  last  through  his  lifetime. 

Troublous  times  soon  came  for  Vasari  and  his  patrons  ; 
the  Florentines,  who  had  fretted  under  the  Medicean  yoke 


GIORGIO  VASAKI 


xlvii 


had  no  sooner  learned  of  the  siege  of  Rome  and  the  cap- 
tivity of  the  Pope  than  they  rose,  thrust  out  the  priest  and 
the  bastard  princes,  and  declared  the  Republic  once  more. 

This  manifestation  of  the  old  spirit  of  civic  liberty  is  of 
course  very  briefly  mentioned  by  Vasari ;  but  he  relates  an 
incident  in  connection  with  it  that  is  too  characteristic  of 
the  man  and  the  times  to  be  omitted.  Now  at  this  time  the 
David  of  Michelangelo  stood  on  the  Ringhiera,  or  stone 
platform  which  occupied  that  side  of  the  old  palace  where 
to-day  Ammanati's  sprawling  nymphs  disport  themselves  in 
the  fountain.  The  Medicean  priors  had  intrenched  them- 
selves in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  which  was  besieged  by  the 
Republicans,  and  during  the  attack  on  the  building  the  be- 
sieged dropped  a  heavy  oak  bench  from  the  windows,  which, 
instead  of  falling  on  their  assailants  struck  the  arm  of  "  the 
giant  of  the  Piazza,^'  as  the  David  was  called,  and  broke  it 
into  three  pieces,  which  lay  on  the  ground  for  several  days 
unnoticed  in  the  tumult.  Francesco  Salviati,  who  like  boys 
in  general,  and  Florentine  boys  in  particular,  had  come  out 
to  see  the  fighting,  recognized  the  fragments,  and  with  his 
friend  Giorgio,  whom  he  generously  allowed  to  share  the 
glory  of  his  enterprise,  ventured  into  the  Piazza.  There, 
heedless  of  the  danger  and  of  the  presence  of  the  armed 
men,  the  two  boys  gathered  up  the  pieces  and  carried  them 
to  the  house  of  Francesco^s  father,  where  Duke  Cosimo 
found  them  when,  years  afterward,  he  wished  to  repair  the 
statue. 

Truly  the  teachings  of  Savonarola  had  borne  fruit,  when 
the  Florentine  youth,  instead  of  throwing  stones  as  was  their 
wicked  wont,  took  to  collecting  them  instead. 

As  his  patrons  the  Medici  were  exiled,  and  as  his  father 
had  died  of  the  plague,  Giorgio  returned  to  Arezzo  with  his 
uncle,  Antonio,  where  he  busied  himself  in  copying  the 
frescoes  of  Giottino,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  the  painter 
II  Rosso  ;  but  the  boy  yearned  for  Florence,  as  the  modern 
art  student  longs  for  Paris,  and  in  the  following  August  he 
returned,  to  study  harder  thjin  ever.    This  youth  of  eigh- 


xlviii 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


teen  had  been  left  with  three  sisters  and  two  brothers  all 
younger  than  himself  to  care  for,  and  we  find  him  during 
the  year  of  tlie  siege  working  with  the  goldsmith  Manno, 
painting  a  fresco  in  Pisa,  in  Bologna  designing  the  festal 
decorations  for  the  triumphal  entrance  of  Charles  V.,  and 
finally  returning  to  Arezzo.  Meanwhile  the  prospects  of 
the  Medici  were  improving,  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  had 
become  friends  and  allies,  and  the  young  Ippolito  de^  Medici, 
recently  made  cardinal,  took  Vasari  to  Eonie  with  him  in 
his  suite.  This  was  the  happiest  period  of  Giorgio's  life. 
Rome  was  the  Mecca  of  the  artist ;  there  the  antique  world 
was  revealed  to  him,  and  Italian  painting  had  become  the 
worthy  successor  of  Greek  sculpture.  There  Vasari  and 
his  old  friend  Francesco  Salviati,  whom  he  had  found  in 
Rome,  spent  many  months  in  hard  work.  They  copied 
indefatigably,  in  the  churches,  in  the  palaces,  and  in  that 
mine  of  riches,  the  Vatican  ;  evening  saw  no  cessation  of 
their  labors,  for  then  to  save  time  they  made  copies  of  each 
other's  drawings  ;  they  seemed  to  be  possessed  by  a  fever  of 
acquisition,  and  to  it  they  sacrificed  not  only  sleep  and  re- 
creation but  even  health  as  well,  and  Vasari  assures  us  that 
the  studies  of  this  period  were  his  true  and  principal  master 
in  art.  When  the  stimulus  of  emulation,  for  Rome  was  full 
of  students,  was  added  to  the  incentive  of  such  an  environ- 
ment, the  excitement  and  enthusiasm  of  the  two  young  art- 
lovers  is  easily  understood. 

Overwork  and  the  habit  of  fasting  to  save  time  resulted  in  a 
serious  illness,  and  poor,  ambitious  Giorgio  was  brought  back 
to  Arezzo  on  a  litter.  In  his  native  air  he  soon  recovered,  and 
by  the  tenth  of  the  following  December  he  was  in  Florence, 
favorably  received  by  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  now  Duke, 
and  placed  under  the  protection  of  Ottaviano  de'  Medici, 
who  was  not  only  a  true  friend  but  an  affectionate  father  to 
Vasari,  if  we  may  believe  his  own  words.  The  Duke,  who 
had  re-entered  Florence  at  the  heels  of  foreign  soldiers,  and 
had  surpassed  his  worthy  predecessors'  usual  quota  of  mur- 
ders, exiles,  and  confiscations,  was  generous  enough  in  his 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


xlix 


treatment  of  Vasari,  to  whom  lie  assigned  lodgings,  a  place 
at  his  own  table,  board  for  a  servant,  and  an  allowance  of 
six  crowns  a  month.  Giorgio,  in  return,  painted  several 
portraits  and  some  scenes  from  the  life  of  Caesar  in  the 
Palazzo  Medici.  In  one  of  his  letters  he  gives  a  lively  ac- 
count of  the  difficulties  he  had  with  an  illustrious  sitter, 
the  future  queen  of  France,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  then  an 
irrepressible  romp.  When  Vasari  returned  from  dinner 
after  working  on  her  portrait  all  the  morning,  he  found  her, 
brush  in  hand,  daubing  the  face  with  black,  and  if  he  had 
not  taken  to  his  heels  she  would  have  "  painted  the  painter 
the  same  colour." 

It  was  at  this  time,  after  the  death  of  Ippolito,  that 
Vasari  began  to  study  architecture,  which  was  of  great  use 
to  him  in  the  magnificent  preparations  that  were  made  for 
the  visit  of  Charles  V.  when  he  came  to  Florence  for  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  with  the  Duke.  Tliese  festivities 
were  described  by  Vasari  in  a  couple  of  letters  to  Aretino, 
whom  he  had  met  at  the  Roman  court  and  who  had  for 
some  unknown  reason  found  it  Avorth  his  while  to  cultivate 
the  young  protege  of  the  Medici.  Those  who  have  seen 
the  Donatello  festival  in  Florence  can  form  some  idea  of 
what  an  artist  could  do  with  every  resource  placed  at  his 
disposition,  with  a  beautiful  city  for  his  background,  and 
princes,  magistrates,  and  lovely  women  for  his  figurants. 
An  important  part  in  the  decoration  had  been  assigned  to 
Vasari,  which  aroused  the  envy  of  certain  malignant  per- 
sons "  who  bri1)ed  his  assistants  to  desert  him  at  a  crucial 
moment.  Partly  by  his  own  untiring  efforts,  partly  with 
the  aid  of  ^'  some  painters  who  came  to  him  from  other 
places,"  the  work  was  completed  in  time  for  the  festival, 
while  the  tasks  of  the  persecutoi's,  who  had  been  more  busy 
in  attending  to  Vasari's  affairs  than  their  own,  remained  un- 
finished. Giorgio's  triumph  was  enhanced  by  the  generos- 
ity of  the  Duke,  who  added  to  tlie  sum  he  had  promised  him 
the  fines,  amounting  to  three  hundred  crowns,  which  were 
paid  by  the  tardy  painters.    This  unexpected  largess  en- 


1 


GIORGIO  VASAEI 


abled  Vasari  to  dower  and  marry  one  of  his  sisters,  and  not 
long  after  to  put  another  of  them  into  a  convent  at  Arezzo. 

His  good  fortune  came  to  a  speedy  end  with  the  assassi- 
nation of  Duke  Alessandro  ;  Cosimo,  his  successor,  was  not 
too  favorably  disposed  toward  the  dead  man's  favorites, 
and  Vasari,  who  had  now  lost  three  protectors  by  death, 
resolved  (aided  by  the  prudent  advice  of  Ottaviano)  to 
leave  Florence  ^'^and  to  seek  no  more  the  favor  of  courts 
but  to  follow  art  for  its  own  sake/^ 

Just  at  this  time,  through  the  influence  of  his  old 
master  Pollastra,  he  received  some  commissions  in  the  so- 
called  hermitage  of  Camaldoli.  In  these  lovely  hills,  cov- 
ered with  giant  fir-trees,  he  spent  three  summers,  paint- 
ing in  the  church  and  in  the  various  shrines  ;  the  holy 
stillness  of  the  place,  the  peaceful  solitude,  the  freedom 
from  fret  and  care,  the  serenity  and  cheerfulness  of  the 
good  monks,  deeply  impressed  the  susceptible  artist.  It 
was  during  his  third  summer  at  Camaldoli,  for  he  had 
gone  back  there  after  one  winter  spent  in  Rome  and  another 
in  Bologna,  that  he  met  Bindo  Altoviti,  financier,  patriot, 
art-lover,  and  one  of  the  noblest  characters  of  the  time, 
who  had  come  to  Camaldoli  to  buy  firs  for  the  construction 
of  St.  Peter's.  Bindo  gave  Vasari  an  important  order  for 
an  altar-piece  in  Florence,  and  thereby  greatly  elated  him, 
for  he  hoped  through  this  picture  to  win  his  spurs  in  the  most 
critical  city  in  Italy.  In  order  to  have  his  ^^mind  free  for 
the  great  work,''  he  married  off  his  third  sister  and  bought 
a  house  in  Arezzo  and  a  garden  in  the  quarter  of  San  Vito, 
famed  for  the  purity  of  its  air.  From  1540-42  he  was  en- 
gaged on  Bindo's  picture,  and  several  others  which  he  has 
described  at  great  length  in  his  letters,  but  which  as  works 
of  art  are  mediocre  and  characterless,  and  which  the  curious 
may  study  in  the  galleries  of  the  Uffizi  and  the  Pitti. 

In  1541  Vasari,  invited  by  the  "  Divine  Aretino,"  visited 
Venice,  stopping  at  Modena  and  Parma  to  study  the  works 
of  Correggio,  at  Verona  to  see  the  antiquities,  and  at  Man- 
tua, where  he  was  the  guest  of  Giulio  Romano.   It  is  worth 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


li 


while  to  note  how  richly  Vasari  repaid  the  kindness  shown 
him  by  the  favorite  pupil  of  Kaphael ;  little  did  Giulio 
think  when  he  played  cicerone  to  an  obscure  young  painter 
of  the  celebrity  that  it  was  in  that  painter's  power  to  bestow 
on  him.  In  Venice,  protected  by  Aretino,  Vasari  visited 
the  painters  in  their  workshops,  painted  nine  pictures  in 
the  Cornaro  Palace,  and  found  work  quite  to  his  taste  in 
decorating  the  city  for  the  brilliant  festival  of  the  Calza. 

On  the  16th  of  August,  "though  overwhelmed  with  un- 
sought commissions,"  he  returned  to  Arezzo  and  proceeded 
to  recreate  himself  by  frescoing  a  ceiling  in  his  own  house. 
Tlie  next  winter  was  spent  in  Rome  in  the  house  of  Bindo 
Altoviti,  for  whom  Vasari  painted  a  Deposition  from  the 
Cross,  "  which  had  the  good  fortune  not  to  displease  the 
greatest  sculptor,  painter,  and  architect  that  ever  lived  in 
our  times."  Michelangelo,  who  showed  great  kindness  to 
Vasari,  and  earnestly  recommended  him  to  study  architect- 
ure (probably  after  examining  his  paintings)  presented 
Giorgio  to  Cardinal  Farnese. 

The  Cardinal,  who,  to  rare  dignity  of  character  united  a 
passion  for  beautiful  things,  was,  next  to  his  grandfather, 
the  Pope,  the  most  powerful  of  Roman  art-patrons.  He, 
with  liis  brother  Rannucio,  built  the  Farnese  palace,  the 
Farnese  gardens,  and  the  Villa  Caprarole ;  he  bought  the 
Hercules,  the  Flora,  and  the  Bull,  which  bear  his  name. 
Michelangelo,  Vignole,  and  Antonio  da  San  Gallo  designed 
his  palaces,  Salviati,  Daniele  da  Volterra,  and  Zuccheri 
painted  for  him,  Giulio  Clovio  illuminated  his  MSS.,  and 
the  archaeologist,  Fulvio  Orsini,  had  charge  of  his  col- 
lections. It  was  for  him  that  Vasari  painted  the  frescoes 
which  still  remain  in  the  Hall  of  the  Chancery,  and  it  was 
at  his  palace  that  Giorgio  was  persuaded  to  write  the  Lives. 

For  several  years  the  painter  divided  his  time  between 
Rome  and  Florence.  In  1544  he  went  to  Naples,  where  he 
worked  at  Monte  Oliveto  in  the  house  of  his  compatriot, 
Tommaso  Cambi,  and,  like  the  many-sided  craftsman  that 
he  was,  designed  the  stalls  and  presses  in  the  monastery  of 


lii 


GIORGIO  VASAEI 


S.  Giovanni  Carbonaro.  In  1547  he  was  in  Rimini  painting 
in  the  monastery  of  his  friend,  the  learned  abbot,  and  in  the 
new  church  of  the  Abbey  of  the  Classi  in  Ravenna  ;  then  he 
was  again  in  Arezzo  working  in  his  own  house.  Not  long 
afterward  he  returned  to  Florence,  where  he  painted  a  pro- 
cessional banner  and  a  Cupid  and  Psyche  for  Annibale 
Caro ;  then,  as  the  handsome  Alfonso  di  Oambi,  who  was 
justly  proud  of  his  fine  person,  greatly  admired  the  nudes  in 
the  latter,  Vasari  painted  a  life-size  portrait  of  the  said  youth 
naked  in  the  character  of  Endymion,  to  the  great  joy  of  the 
''^good,  kindly,  and  courteous^'  Alfonso,  who  doubtless  felt 
that  it  was  not  ^'^good,  kindly,  and  courteous''  to  deny  to 
others  the  sight  of  so  much  beauty.  Soon  afterward  Vasari 
was  persuaded  by  the  future  Pope  Julius  III.  to  do  what 
he  had  never  before  chosen  to  do — take  a  wife  ; "  therefore, 
to  quote  the  victim's  own  words,  I  married  accordingly, 
as  was  his  desire,  a  daughter  of  the  noble  Aretine  citizen, 
Francesco  Bacci." 

The  few  lines  which  Vasari  devotes  to  his  marriage  are 
typical  of  the  slight  importance  of  such  an  event  in  a  busy 
and  ambitious  man's  life.  A  wife,"  says  Michelangelo  in 
his  letters,  should  be  ten  years  younger  than  her  husband, 
healthy,  and  of  a  good  family."  Character,  mind,  and 
heart  were  unimportant  trifles ;  beauty  was  a  dangerous 
possession,  and  talent  a  prudent  man  fought  shy  of.  As  to 
learning,  it  was  all  very  well  for  princesses  and  great  ladies, 
but  had  no  place  among  the  narrow  interests  and  small 
economies  of  a  burgher  household.  The  Italian  "  about  to 
marry  "  followed  not  the  dictates  of  his  heart,  but  the  com- 
mands of  his  reason.  He  chose,  not  a  woman  whom  he 
blindly  adored,  nor  one  for  whom  he  felt  that  warm  and 
perennial  affection  which  springs  from  parity  of  tastes  and 
ideas,  but  one  who  would  be  a  thrifty  housekeeper  and  a 
mother  of  strong  sons.  Naturally,  in  a  union  based  on  such 
practical  considerations,  there  was  no  room  for  sentiment. 
Vasari  had  seen  in  Raphael's  broken  life  the  fatal  conse- 
quences of  an  absorbing  passion,  the  example  of  Andrea  del 


GlOtiGIO  VASARI 


liii 


Sarto  had  taught  him  how  love  of  woman  may  wreck  a 
man^s  career,  and  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  unruly 
affections  ever  troubled  the  even  tenor  of  Giorgio's  busy 
life.  If  "  Love  is  born  of  idleness  and  fulness  of  bread  "  it 
is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  his  darts  glanced  off  the 
ever-occupied  painter. 

Niccolosa,  Yasari^s  new  wife,  who,  from  the  medal  Pasto- 
rino  da  Siena  made  of  her,  seems  to  have  been  a  pretty,  slen- 
der girl,  did  not  keep  him  long  in  Arezzo.  He  was  soon  in 
Florence  again  painting  a  Madonna  for  Bindo  Altoviti  and 
an  altar-piece  for  the  Martelli.  Meanwhile  the  matchmaker. 
Cardinal  di  Monte,  had  become  Pope  Julius  III.,  and  sent 
for  Vasari  to  build  a  tomb,  to  paint  pictures,  and  to  make 
plans  for  the  pope's  favorite  toy,  the  Vigna  Giulia,  a  villa 
surrounded  by  gardens.  But  the  new  pontiff  changed  his 
mind  so  rapidly  that  even  Vasari,  who  could  '^'^rush"  a  dec- 
oration or  paint  a  picture  at  a  moment's  notice,  failed  to 
keep  pace  with  him,  and  as  His  Holiness's  orders  were  given 
through  Bishop  Tantecose  (Busybody),  they  were  still  fur- 
ther confused  and  contradictory. 

Vasari,  therefore,  returned  to  Arezzo,  where  he  filled  the 
honorary  office  of  Prior  until  Duke  Cosimo,  who  had  several 
times  intimated  that  he  desired  Vasari's  services,  summoned 
him  to  Florence,  and  after  some  time  spent  in  finishing  sev- 
eral commissions,  Vasari  finally  became  the  duke's  man  in 
1555.  From  this  time  until  1572  he  was  constantly  em- 
•  ployed  in  the  old  palace.  He  completely  remodelled  most  of 
the  interior,  and  the  rooms  which  we  visit  to-day  are  his. 
He  was  full  of  resources,  and,  without  making  changes  in  the 
construction,  by  clever  shifts  and  devices  he  transformed 
the  stern  Republican  town -house  into  a  prince's  palace. 
Ceilings  were  raised  and  carved,  wide,  easy  staircases  built, 
walls  veneered  with  marble  or  hung  with  arras  woven  after 
Vasari's  designs,  and  a  whole  cycle  of  decorations  represent- 
ing Stories  of  the  gods,^'  the  Virtues"  of  Cosimo, 
the  portraits  of  his  children  and  friends,  were  painted  in  a 
feverish  hurry  by  the  indefatigable  Giorgio  and  described 


liv 


GIORGIO  VASAEI 


with  mucn  eiiberation  and  minuteness  in  his  Eagiona- 
menti/^  The  Duke  was  as  generous  as  he  was  exacting,  and 
Vasari  received  a  stipend  of  twenty-five  ducats  a  month 
from  the  Duke  himself  and  thirteen  from  the  magistrates, 
besides  gifts  from  time  to  time — among  other  things  an  ex- 
cellent house  in  Florence  in  the  Borgo  Santa  Croce,  and  a 
villa  in  the  country.  Vasari^s  kinsfolk  shared  his  good  fort- 
une and  the  favor  of  the  prince.  Cosimo  was  as  liberal  of 
honors  to  the  painter  as  he  had  been  with  money,  and  ap- 
pointed Vasari  Gonfaloniere  of  Arezzo  with  the  privilege  of 
naming  a  substitute  to  perform  the  active  duties  of  the  office. 

The  most  important  work  which  Vasari  executed  for  the 
Duke  was  the  painting  of  the  great  sala  which  was  finished 
''in  less  time  than  was  expected  or  his  Excellency  had 
hoped."  Here  in  this  noble  hall  filled  with  the  memories 
of  Savonarola,  which  Da  Vinci  and  Michelangelo  were  to  have 
decorated  for  the  republic,  Vasari  splashed  in  the  dreary, 
painted  platitudes  over  which  the  tourist  yawns  to-day. 

Non  ragioniam  di  lor  ma  guarda  e  passa,"  do  not  even 
look  long,  for  these  ten  great  compositions  which  treat  of 
the  "  history  of  Florence  from  the  foundation  to  the  pres- 
ent time,"  and  in  which  Vasari  was  ''  called  upon  to  depict 
everything  that  could  present  itself  to  the  mind  and  thought 
of  man,"  are  utterly  commonplace.  They  were  completed, 
however,  in  time  for  the  marriage  of  Cosimo's  eldest  son, 
Francesco,  with  the  Archduchess  of  Austria,  as  well  as 
various  arches  of  triumph,  painted  facades,  and  other  gigan- 
tic decorations  which  added  to  the  splendor  of  the  nuptials. 
Vasari  was  an  invaluable  impressario  for  festivals  ;  his  facil- 
ity never  failed  him  and  his  nervous  energy  made  him  re- 
joice in  excitement  and  hurry  ;  they  stimulated  him  as 
applause  does  a  race-horse.  Owing  to  his  keen  sense  of 
responsibility  he  was  always  ready  in  time,  and  this  rare 
virtue  in  a  painter — at  least  in  a  sixteenth-century  painter — 
more  than  once  advanced  his  fortunes. 

Some  important  and  fine  buildings  were  erected  by  him, 
or  at  least  under  his  supervision,  during  this  period  of  his 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


Iv 


life  :  in  Florence  the  palace  of  the  Uffizi,  the  corridor 
which,  crossing  the  Arno,  leads  from  it  to  the  Pitti  (and 
which  was  built  in  the  space  of  five  months)  ;  in  Pisa  the 
cupola  of  the  Madonna  delF  Umilta  and  the  palace  and 
church  erected  for  the  Knights  of  St.  Stephen,  a  new  order 
instituted  by  Oosimo,  and  which  distinguished  itself  at  Le- 
panto.  These  works  were  dismissed,  like  the  "Lives,"  with 
a  few  lines  ;  perhaps  Giorgio,  like  the  mother  who  defends 
the  weaklings  of  her  brood,  felt  that,  unlike  his  paintings, 
they  needed  no  apologies  or  explanations.  The  changes  he 
made  in  Santa  Maria  Novella  and  in  Santa  Croce,  i.e.,  the 
removal  of  the  rood-screens,  the  addition  of  new  choirs  and 
side-chapels,  have  been  much  regretted  and  severely  criti- 
cised. During  this  time  he  had  executed  many  private  com- 
missions ;  his  fecundity  and  his  facility  of  hand  seem  amaz- 
ing until  we  examine  the  pictures  themselves,  when  after 
admitting  that  it  was  remarkable  that  one  man  in  a  com- 
paratively short  life  should  have  produced  so  much,  we  are 
tempted  to  add,  with  Dr.  Johnson,  "  Would  to  God  that  it 
had  been  impossible." 

In  1567  Vasari,  pleading  fatigue,  obtained  the  Duke's  leave 
to  spend  several  months  in  travel.  The  tireless  painter  passed 
his  time  in  the  restful  pursuit  of  making  notes  for  the  sec- 
ond edition  of  the  "  Lives,"  in  studying  buildings,  pictures, 
and  statues,  and  in  visiting  his  friends  ;  he  finished  his  tour 
by  going  to  kiss  the  feet  of  the  new  Pope,  Pius  V.,  who, 
faithful  to  Papal  traditions,  gave  him  a  commission.  When 
the  picture  was  finished  the  painter  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  examined  the  Sistine  bridge,  which  was  decaying, 
and  where  he  had  many  consultations  with  the  Pope  in  re- 
gard to  St.  Peter's,  and,  loyal  at  once  to  art  and  Michelan- 
gelo, earnestly  advised  His  Holiness  not  to  permit  any  de- 
parture from  Buonarroti's  plans.  Before  leaving  Vasari 
obtained  permission  to  build  a  chapel  and  decanato  in  the 
Deanery  of  Arezzo  ;  this  chapel  was  in  due  time  painted  by 
the  unwearied  Giorgio,  and  in  it  he  was  buried. 

Vasari's  autobiography  ends  abruptly  in  the  year  1568, 


Ivi 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


when  his  Lives  "  were  printed,  and  for  an  account  of  the 
six  remaining  years  of  his  life  we  are  obliged  to  depend 
upon  his  letters  and  the  researches  of  Bottari. 

From  the  latter  we  learn  that  in  1570  Vasari  was  again  in 
Rome  painting  huge  historical  compositions  in  the  Cordo- 
nate  and  in  the  Sola  Regia.  During  the  rest  of  his  life  he 
was  driven  like  a  shuttlecock  from  the  Pope  to  the  Duke, 
from  the  Duke  to  the  Pope.  He  was  himself  anxious  to  re- 
main in  Florence  to  commence  an  important  commission, 
the  frescoes  of  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  for 
which  he  had  made  elaborate  plans  and  cartoons,  and  which 
he  hoped  would  be  his  magnum  opus.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Pope  constantly  wanted  him  in  Rome  not  only  for  the 
paintings  of  the  Vatican,  but  to  superintend  the  building  of 
St.  Peter's,  to  conduct  the  Acqua  Vergine  from  Salona  to 
Rome,  or  to  repair  San  Giovanni  Laterano. 

In  1572  we  find  Vasari  in  Florence  employed  in  designing 
a  palace  at  Capraia,  some  fountains  for  the  Oastello,  a  small 
church  at  Colle  Mingoli,  and  pushing  on  the  preparations 
for  the  cupola  frescoes,  but  the  Pope  could  not  spare  him 
long  and  an  importunate  letter  soon  arrived,  enjoining,  ra- 
ther than  requesting,  him  to  repair  to  Rome  at  once,  for  the 
Pope,  Gregory  XIII.,  was  anxious  to  have  the  paintings  of 
the  8ala  Regia  finished.  For  the  first  time  the  patient 
old  courtier-painter  proved  recalcitrant,  but  after  the  Duke 
had  represented  to  him  that  his  refusal  to  obey  His  Holi- 
ness's  commands  would  be  ascribed  to  the  influence  of 
his  patron,  the  painter,  taking  many  assistants  with  him, 
started  for  Rome,  and  there  worked  with  even  greater  speed 
than  usual,  so  that  the  Sala  Regia  was  opened  to  the  public 
on  Corpus  Domini  of  the  year  1573.  Among  the  subjects 
of  these  paintings  were  three  devoted  to  the  murder  of  Ad- 
miral Coligny  and  the  affair  {cosa)  of  the  Huguenots  " — 
in  secular  language,  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  which 
had  occurred  during  the  Pontificate  of  Gregory  XIII.,  and 
which  he  was  naturally  anxious  to  have  properly  commem- 
orated. 


GIORGIO  VASARI 


Ivii 


In  the  midst  of  the  triumph  which,  following  the  open- 
ing of  the  Sala  Regia,  where  for  thirty-nine  years,  under  six 
successive  popes,  twelve  painters  had  labored,  an  invita- 
tion from  Philip  II.  of  Spain  arrived  urging  Vasari  to  visit 
the  Spanish  court  and  offering  magnificent  terms,  but  Gior- 
gio was  satiated  at  last  with  honors,  and  refused,  saying 
^'  that  he  desired  no  more  glory,  no  more  work  and  fatigue 
(mirabile  dictu  I),  but  only  to  be  able  to  repose  himself  in 
the  grand  and  magnanimous  shadow  of  his  lord."  He  then 
for  the  last  time  went  back  to  Florence  to  resume  his  work 
in  the  cupola,  where  death  surprised  him  on  June  27,  1574, 
before  he  had  quite  finished  the  figures  of  prophets  and 
elders  which  surround  the  oculus  of  the  lantern. 

He  was  buried,  with  many  honors,  in  Arezzo,  and  mourned 
by  "his  innumerable  friends,  who  were  almost  all  the  learned 
men,  and  every  famous  artist  of  the  time,  while  of  the  less 
distinguished  he  was  himself  the  friend  and  protector."  Nor 
was  this  astonishing.  No  artist  ever  lived  on  kindlier  terms, 
not  only  with  his  co-workers  but  with  his  fellow-creatures  ; 
no  artist  ever  wrote  with  more  enthusiasm  of  the  works  of 
others,  with  more  humility  of  his  own,  and  those  who  have 
followed  his  blameless  life,  and  seen  his  character  revealed 
in  his  work,  will  say  with  Delia  Valle,  "  who  would  not 
be  the  friend  of  Vasari  ?  " 


DeMcation  to  Como  IDe*  ADeMci 


[TO  THE  EDITION  OF  1550]. 

To  THE  Most  Illusteious  akd  Most  Excellent  Signor 
Cosmo  de'  Medici,  Duke  of  Florence,  My  Most 
Kevered  Lord. 

Impelled  by  your  own  natural  magnanimity,  and  follow- 
ing the  example  of  your  illustrious  progenitors,  your  Excel- 
lency has  never  ceased  to  favour  and  exalt  every  kind  of 
talent,  wheresoever  it  may  be  found,  more  particularly  do 
you  protect  the  arts  of  design  ;  and  since  your  gracious  dis- 
position towards  those  who  exercise  these  arts,  with  your 
knowledge  of,  and  pleasure  in,  their  best  and  rarest  works, 
is  fully  manifest,  I  have  thought  that  this  labour  which  I 
have  undertaken — of  writing  the  lives,  describing  the  works, 
and  setting  forth  the  various  relations  of  those  who,  when 
art  had  become  extinct,  first  revived,  and  then  gradually 
conducted  her  to  that  degree  of  beauty  and  majesty  wherein 
we  now  see  her,  would  not  be  other  than  pleasing  to  your 
Excellency. 

And  since  almost  all  these  masters  were  Tuscans,  the 
greater  part  of  them  your  own  Florentines,  many  of  whom 
were  aided  and  encouraged  by  your  illustrious  ancestors 
with  every  sort  of  honour  and  reward,  it  may  be  truly  af- 
firmed that  the  arts  were  recalled  to  life  in  your  own  States — 
nay,  in  your  own  most  fortunate  house.  Thus  is  the  world 
indebted  to  your  ancestors  for  the  recovery  of  these  noble 
arts,  by  which  it  is  both  ennobled  and  embellished. 

Reflecting,  therefore  on  the  gratitude  which  this  age — ■ 
the  arts  and  their  masters — owe  alike  to  your  ancestors,  and 


Ix  DEDICATION  TO  COSMO  DE'  MEDICI 

to  yourself,  as  the  heir  of  their  virtues,  and  their  patron- 
age of  these  professions, — reflecting  also  on  what  I  owe  them 
in  my  own  person,  whether  as  subject  or  servant,  and  for 
what  I  have  learned  from  them.  Brought  up  under  the 
Cardinal  Ippolito  de^  Medici,  and  under  Alexander,  your 
predecessor,  and  deeply  honouring  the  memory  of  the  mag- 
nanimous Ottaviano  de^  Medici,  by  whom  I  was  supported, 
befriended,  and  sheltered  while  he  lived  ;  for  all  these  rea- 
sons, and  because  the  greatness  of  your  high  fortune  will 
largely  contribute  to  the  advantage  of  this  work,  and  from 
your  intimate  acquaintance  with  its  subject,  the  extent  of 
its  utility,  with  the  care  and  industry  bestowed  on  its  exe- 
cution, can  be  so  fully  appreciated  by  none  as  by  your  Ex- 
cellency— it  appears  to  me  that  I  cannot  suitably  dedicate 
this  work  to  any  other  than  your  Excellency,  under  the 
protection  of  whose  most  honoured  name  I  desire  that  it 
may  reach  the  hands  of  men. 

Deign,  then,  to  accept,  to  favour,  and — if  your  exalted 
occupations  permit — sometimes  to  read  my  book,  having  re- 
gard to  the  nature  of  the  matters  treated  therein,  and  to 
the  uprightness  of  my  intention  :  for  my  object  has  not 
been  to  acquire  praise  as  a  writer  ;  but  rather,  as  an  artist, 
to  celebrate  the  industry,  and  revive  the  memory,  of  those 
who,  having  adorned  and  given  life  to  these  professions,  do 
not  merit  that  their  names  and  works  should  remain  the 
prey  of  death  and  oblivion,  as  they  have  hitherto  been.  I 
have,  besides,  thought  that  the  example  of  so  many  able 
men,  with  the  various  notices,  of  divers  kinds,  collected  by  my 
labours  in  this  book,  might  be  of  no  small  advantage  to  those 
who  study  the  arts,  and  would  gratify  all  others  who  have 
taste  for,  and  pleasure  in  them.  And  I  have  laboured  to  exe- 
cute the  whole  with  that  accuracy  and  good  faith  demanded 
in  the  relation  of  historical  facts  committed  to  writing. 
But  if  my  fashion  of  writing — being  uncultivated  and  sim- 
ple, as  I  am  wont  to  speak — is  not  worthy  of  your  Excel- 
lency's ear,  or  of  the  merits  of  so  many  men  of  illustrious 
ability — pardon  me  as  to  them — that  the  pen  of  a  Drafts- 


DEDICATION  TO  COSMO  DE'  MEDICI  Ixi 

man,  such  as  they  were  themselves,  has  not  availed  to  give 
them  a  clearer  outline  or  more  effective  shadows  ;  and  as  to 
yourself,  it  shall  suffice  me  if  your  Excellency  will  deign  to 
look  favourably  on  my  simple  work,  remembering  that  the 
necessity  I  am  in  of  providing  myself  with  the  daily  neces- 
saries of  life,  has  not  allowed  me  time  for  other  studies 
than  those  of  the  pencil.  Nor  even  in  these  have  I  yet  at- 
tained to  that  point  at  which  I  now  hope  to  arrive,  now, 
when  fortune  promises  to  favour  me  so  far,  that,  with  more 
credit  to  myself,  and  more  satisfaction  to  others,  I  may  be 
able  to  express  my  thoughts,  whatever  they  may  be,  to  the 
world,  as  well  with  my  pencil  as  my  pen.  For,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  aid  and  protection  which  I  may  hope  from  your 
Excellency  as  my  liege  lord,  and  as  the  jirotector  of  poor  ar- 
tists, it  has  pleased  the  Divine  goodness  to  elect  the  most 
holy  and  most  blessed  Julius  III.  to  be  his  vicar  upon  earth 
— a  pontiff  who  acknowledges  and  loves  every  kind  of  ex- 
cellence, more  especially  in  these  most  noble  and  difficult 
arts  ;  and  from  whose  exalted  liberality  I  expect  indemnifi- 
cation for  the  many  years  I  have  consumed,  and  the  heavy 
labours  I  have  endured,  up  to  this  time,  without  any  fruit 
whatever.  And  not  only  I,  who  have  devoted  myself  in  per- 
petual servitude  to  his  Holiness,  but  all  the  ingenious 
artistg  of  this  age,  may  equally  expect  honour,  reward, 
and  opportunity  to  exercise  their  art ;  so  that  I  rejoice  al- 
ready in  the  thought  that  these  arts  will  reach  the  supreme 
point  of  their  perfection  during  his  reign,  and  Rome  be 
adorned  by  so  many  and  such  excellent  artists,  that,  count- 
ing with  them  those  of  Florence,  daily  called  into  activity 
by  your  Excellency,  we  may  hope  that  they  who  shall  come 
after  us  will  have  to  write  a  fourth  part  to  my  work,  en- 
riched by  other  performances  and  other  masters  than  those 
here  described,  in  the  company  of  whom  I  continually  make 
every  effort  to  be  not  among  the  last. 

Meanwhile,  I  am  content  that  your  Excellency  have  some 
hope  of  me,  and  a  better  opinion  of  me  than  you  probably, 
without  any  fault  of  mine,  have  hitherto  held,  entreating 


Ixii  DEDICATION  TO  COSMO  DE'  MEDICI 

that  your  Excellency  will  not  suffer  me  to  be  injured,  in 
your  estimation,  by  the  malignant  assertions  of  others,  while 
my  life  and  works  prove  the  contrary  of  their  reports.  And 
now,  with  the  earnest  desire  ever  to  serve  and  honour  your 
Excellency,  I  dedicate  this  my  rude  labour,  as  I  have  de- 
voted myself  and  all  that  I  have,  to  your  service,  entreat- 
ing that  you  will  not  disdain  to  take  it  under  your  protec- 
tion, or  that  you  will  at  least  regard  the  devotion  of  him 
who  offers  it  I  recommend  myself  to  your  gracious  consid- 
eration, and  humbly  kissing  your  hands,  am  your  Excel- 
lency's most  obedient  servant, 

GiOKGio  Vasaki, 
Painter,  of  Arezzo, 


3)el)icatton  to  (Zomo  2)e'  fll^e^^c^ 


To  THE  Most  Illustrious  and  Most  Excellent  Signor 
Cosmo  de'  Medici,  Duke  of  Florence  and  Siena, 
his  most  honoured  Lord. 

Seventeen  years  have  now  elapsed  since  I  presented  to 
your  most  illustrious  Excellency  the  then  but  roughly 
sketched  Lives  of  the  most  renowned  Painters,  Sculptors, 
and  Architects  ;  and  now  they  once  again  return  to  present 
themselves  before  you,  not  indeed  wholly  finished,  yet  so 
changed  from  what  they  first  were, — so  enriched  by  the 
many  works  of  which  I  had  not  been  able  to  obtain  an  ear- 
lier knowledge,  and  so  much  more  complete,  that  there  re- 
mains, in  my  opinion,  nothing  more  that  my  power  can 
supply,  to  be  desired  for  them.  Again  I  present  these  Lives 
to  you,  therefore,  most  illustrious  and  most  truly  excellent 
My  Lord  Duke,  with  the  addition  of  other  noble  and  very 
famous  artists,  who,  between  the  former  period  and  the 
present,  have  passed  from  the  miseries  of  this  life  to  a  bet- 
ter ;  as  well  as  of  some,  who,  though  still  in  life  amongst 
us,  have  so  nobly  laboured  in  their  vocation,  that  they  are 
most  worthy  to  be  had  in  eternal  remembrance.  And  of  a 
truth  it  has  been  of  no  small  advantage  to  many,  that  I 
have  been  permitted,  by  the  mercy  of  Him  through  whom 
live  all  things,  to  survive  until  I  have  been  able  to  write 
this  book  almost  anew ;  for,  as  I  have  expunged  many 
things,  which  in  my  absence  and  without  my  knowledge, 
had  been  printed  in  the  former  one,  I  know  not  how,  so  I 
have  also  altered  and  added  many  things,  which,  although 
useful  and  even  necessary,  were  previously  wanting.  And 
if  the  portraits  of  the  many  distinguished  men,  which  I 


Ixiv  DEDICATION  TO  COSMO  DE'  MEDICI 

have  added  to  this  work,  and  of  which  great  part  have  been 
procured  by  the  favour  and  aid  of  your  Excellency,  are  not 
always  true  to  the  life,  and  have  not  those  characteristic 
expressions,  or  that  resemblance  more  commonly  given  by 
the  vivacity  of  colour,  this  is  not  because  the  drawings  have 
not  been  made  from  the  life,  or  are  not  the  real  and  natural 
likeness  of  the  artist,  but  arises  from  the  fact,  that  they 
have  been  sent  to  me  in  great  part  by  the  friends  that  I 
possess  in  various  places,  and  have  not  been  taken  by  a 
master's  hand.  I  have  also  endured  no  small  inconvenience 
from  the  distance  of  those  who  have  engraved  the  heads  ; 
for  if  the  engravers  had  been  near  me,  we  might  probably 
have  had  the  work  executed  with  greater  care  than  has  now 
been  done.  But  however  this  may  be,  our  artists,  and  the 
lovers  of  art  for  whose  benefit  and  convenience  I  have  sub- 
jected myself  to  so  much  labour,  are  wholly  indebted  to 
your  most  illustrious  Excellency,  for  whatever  of  good,  use- 
ful, or  agreeable  may  be  found  in  this  work ;  for,  being  in 
your  Excellency's  service,  I  have  had  facilities,  by  means  of 
the  leisure  which  you  have  been  pleased  to  secure  to  me, 
and  by  the  use  of  the  many,  nay,  innumerable  objects  be- 
longing to  your  Excellency,  to  which  I  have  had  access  : 
for  the  collection,  arrangement,  and  final  presentation  to 
the  world,  of  all  that  seemed  desirable  for  the  completion 
of  the  work.  And  now,  would  it  not  be  almost  impiety  as 
well  as  ingratitude,  should  I  dedicate  these  lives  to  any 
other  than  yourself  ?  or,  if  artists  should  attribute,  what- 
ever they  may  find  of  useful  or  pleasing  in  the  work,  to  any 
one  but  to  your  Excellency  ?  For  not  only  was  it  by  your 
help  and  favour  that  the  book  first  received  existence,  and 
now  returns  to  the  light ;  but  are  not  you  alone,  in  imita- 
tion of  our  ancestors,  sole  father,  lord,  and  protector,  of 
these  our  arts  ?  Most  reasonable  and  righteous  is  it,  there- 
fore, that  so  many  pictures  and  noble  statues,  with  so  many 
wondrous  edifices  of  every  kind,  should  be  erected  and  exe- 
cuted by  those  in  your  service,  and  to  your  eternal  and  ever- 
during  memory.    But  if  we  are  all  indebted  to  you  for 


DEDICATION  TO  COSMO  De'  MEDICI  IxV 

these  and  other  causes, — as  we  all  are  most  deeply, — how 
much  more  do  not  I  owe  you  ?  I,  who  have  ever  received 
at  your  hands  so  many  valued  occasions  (would  that  my  head 
and  hands  were  but  equal  to  my  wish  and  desire, )  for  giv- 
ing proof  of  my  slight  abilities,  which,  whatever  tliey  may 
be,  are  very  far  from  commensurate  to  the  truly  royal 
magnificence  and  greatness  of  your  own  mind.  But  what 
do  I  seek  to  accomplish  ?  It  were  better  I  should  remain 
silent  than  attempt  that  which  would  be  wholly  impossi- 
ble, even  to  a  much  higher  and  nobler  intellect, — how  much 
more,  then,  to  my  most  weak  powers.  Deign  then,  your 
most  illustrious  Excellency,  to  accept  this  my — or  rather, 
indeed,  your — book  of  the  Lives  of  the  Artists  in  Design, 
and,  as  doth  the  Father  of  all,  looking  first  to  the  heart  of 
the  writer,  and  the  good  intentions  of  the  work,  be  pleased 
graciously  to  accept,  not  what  I  would,  or  ought  to  offer, 
but  what  I  am  able  to  present. 

Your  most  illustrious  Excellency's 
Most  obliged  servant, 

GioKGio  Vasari. 

Florence,  9th  January,  1668. 


ZCo  tbe  UvtiBtB  in  BeaiQtt 

GIORGIO  VASARI. 

Most  dear  akd  excellent  Brother  Artists, — the  de- 
light, as  well  as  the  honour  and  profit  that  I  have  derived 
from  labouring  as  I  have  best  been  able  in  these  most  noble 
arts,  has  ever  been  so  great,  that  I  have  not  only  felt  an  ar- 
dent wish  to  exalt,  to  celebrate,  and  to  honour  them  by  every 
means  in  my  power,  but  have  also  been  ever  most  affection- 
ately disposed  towards  all  who  take  similar  pleasure  in  them, 
or  who  have  distinguished  themselves  more  happily  in  the 
pursuit  of  them  than  I,  perchance,  have  been  able  to  do. 
And  from  this,  my  good  will  and  fulness  of  most  sincere  af- 
fection, it  appears  to  me,  that  I  have  hitherto  gathered  the 
due  and  proper  fruits,  having  been  constantly  beloved  and 
honoured  by  all  of  you  ;  and  the  intercourse  between  us 
having  always  been  of  a  cordial  intimacy,  if  I  might  not 
rather  say  of  the  most  perfect  brotherhood, — for  we  have 
mutually  laid  open  to  each  other  our  various  works, — I  to 
you,  and  you  to  me, — assisting  one  another  whenever  the 
occasion  presented  itself,  both  with  council  and  with  aid. 
Wherefore,  moved  by  this  our  affection,  and  much  more  by 
your  excellent  talents,  but  also  by  my  own  inclination,  by 
nature,  and  by  a  most  potent  instinct  and  attraction,  I  have 
always  felt  deeply  bound  to  gratify  and  serve  you,  in  every 
manner,  and  by  all  means,  that  I  have  judged  likely  to  con- 
tribute either  to  your  enjoyment  or  advantage.  To  this 
end  it  was,  that  in  the  year  1550,  I  put  forth  the  lives  of 
those  most  renowned  and  esteemed  among  us,  moved  there- 
unto by  a  cause  recounted  elsewhere,  and  also  (to  declare  the 
truth)  by  a  generous  indignation  that  so  much  talent  should 


Ixviii 


TO  THE  ARTISTS  IN  DESIGN 


remain  concealed  for  so  long  a  time,  and  still  continue 
buried.  Nor  does  this  my  labour  appear  to  have  been  un- 
welcome ;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  been  so  well  accepted, 
that, — besides  the  many  things  that  have  been  said  and 
written  to  me  from  many  parts, — of  the  very  large  number 
that  was  printed  of  my  book,  there  does  not  remain  one 
single  volume  in  the  hands  of  the  booksellers. 

Accordingly,  daily  receiving  requests  from  many  friends, 
and  knowing,  too,  with  equal  certainty,  the  unexpressed 
wishes  of  many  others,  I  have  once  more  addressed  myself 
to  my  former  labours  (although  occupied  in  most  important 
undertakings),  with  the  intention,  not  only  of  adding  the 
names  of  those  who,  having  passed  in  the  interim  to  a  better 
world,  thus  give  me  the  opportunity  of  writing  their  lives  at 
more  length,  but  also  of  supplying  what  may  have  been  want- 
ing to  the  perfection  of  the  first  work.  For  I  have  had  op- 
portunities in  the  meanwhile  of  attaining  a  clearer  compre- 
hension respecting  many  things,  and  of  re-examining  others  ; 
not  only  by  the  favour  of  those  my  most  illustrious  lords 
(whom  I  serve),  the  refuge  and  protection  of  every  subject 
of  virtu  ;  but  likewise  by  the  facilities  which  they  have  sup- 
plied of  making  new  researches  throughout  Italy,  and  of 
seeing  and  examining  many  things  which  had  not  before 
come  under  my  notice.  Thus,  it  is  not  enough  to  say  that 
I  have  corrected  these  lives ;  since  they  have  received  such 
large  additions  that  many  of  them  may  be  said  to  be  written 
anew ;  while  many,  even  of  the  older  masters,  which  were 
not  before  included,  have  now  been  added  to  the  number. 
Nor  have  any  labour,  cost,  or  pains  appeared  to  me  too 
great  for  the  better  restoration  of  the  memory  of  those 
whom  I  so  greatly  honour,  or  for  the  discovering  of  their 
portraits,  and  the  procuring  them,  to  place  before  their  lives. 
And,  for  the  more  perfect  satisfaction  of  many  friends,  de- 
voted lovers  of  art,  though  not  within  our  ranks,  I  have 
brought  into  a  compendious  form  the  greater  part  of  the 
works  of  those  artists  who  are  still  living,  but  whose  talents 
render  them  worthy  to  be  held  in  constant  remembrance  ; 


TO  THE  ARTISTS  IN  DESIGN  Ixix 

for  that  consideration  which  formerly  restrained  me,  need 
have  no  influence  here,  if  the  matter  be  well  weighed,  since 
I  propose  to  speak  of  nothing  that  is  not  good  and  worthy 
of  praise.  And  it  may  be,  that  these  my  words  shall  serve 
as  a  spur,  moving  each  to  continue  labouring  worthily,  and 
to  seek  to  advance  himself  perpetually  from  good  to  better  ; 
insomuch,  that  he  who  shall  write  the  remainder  of  this  his- 
tory, may  be  able  to  treat  his  subject  with  increased  grand- 
eur and  majesty,  as  having  to  enumerate  those  more  rare  and 
perfect  works,  which,  in  the  lapse  of  time,  inspired  by  the 
longing  for  immortality,  and  worked  out  by  the  efforts  of 
exalted  minds,  the  future  world  shall  behold,  proceeding 
from  your  hands.  Then  the  youth  who  pursue  these 
studies,  incited  by  the  love  of  glory  (when  the  love  of 
gain  has  not  so  strong  an  influence)  may  perchance  become 
inflamed  by  the  example,  and  in  their  turn  attain  to  excel- 
lence. 

And  that  this  book  may  be  complete  in  all  its  parts,  so 
that  the  reader  shall  not  need  to  seek  anything  beyond  it,  I 
have  added  great  part  of  the  works  of  the  most  celebrated 
ancient  masters,  as  well  Greek  as  of  other  nations,  the 
memory  of  whom  has  been  preserved  even  to  our  own  days 
by  Pliny,  and  other  writers ;  but  for  whose  pens  that  mem- 
ory must  have  been  buried  in  eternal  oblivion,  as  is  the  case 
with  so  many  others.  And  perhaps  this  consideration  also 
may  increase  our  desire  to  labour  truly  ;  for,  seeing  the  no- 
bility and  greatness  of  our  art,  and  how,  by  all  nations,  but 
especially  by  the  most  exalted  minds,  and  the  most  potent 
rulers,  it  has  ever  been  honoured  and  rewarded,  we  may  all 
be  the  more  influenced  and  impelled  to  adorn  the  world  with 
works,  inflnite  as  to  number  and  surpassing  in  their  excel- 
lence,— whence,  embellished  by  our  labours,  it  may  place 
us  on  that  eminence  on  which  it  has  maintained  those  ever 
admirable  and  most  celebrated  spirits. 

Accept  these  my  labours,  therefore,  with  a  friendly  mind  ; 
whatsoever  they  may  be,  I  have  anxiously  conducted  the 
work  to  its  close,  for  the  glory  of  art,  and  to  the  honour  of 


Ixx  TO  THE  ARTISTS  IN  DESIGlT 

artists;  receive  it  then  as  a  sure  token  and  pledge  of  my 
heart,  which  is  of  nothing  more  desirous  than  of  your  great- 
ness and  glory.  In  the  which,  I  being  received  by  you  into 
your  Society  (wherefore  I  am  both  thankful  to  you,  and  re- 
joiced no  little  as  for  mine  own  part),  it  appears  to  me  that 
I  always,  in  a  certain  sort,  participate. 


CONTENTS 

PAMB 

PREFACE    V 

GIORGIO  VASARI  xxv 

DEDICATION  TO  COSMO  DE'  MEDICI         .        .  lix 
[To  THE  Edition  of  1550] 

DEDICATION  TO  COSMO  DE'  MEDICI         .        .  Ixiii 

TO  THE  ARTISTS  IN  DESIGN     .        .        .        .  Ixvii 

GIOVANNI  CIMABUE  1 

ARNOLFO  DI  LAPO  15 

NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA  .        .  .24 

GIOTTO  48 

ANDREA  PISANO  81 

AMBRUOGIO  LORENZETTI  94 

SIMONE   MARTINI   AND  LIPPO  MEMMI      .        .  100 

TADDEO   GADDI  114 

ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA    .        .        .  .130 

DUCCIO  o  145 

JACOPO  DELLA   QUERCIA  150 

LUCA  DELLA  ROBBIA  160 


Ixxii 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PAOLO  UCCELLO   177 

LORENZO   GHIBERTI   192 

MASOLINO  DA  PANICALE   322 

MASACCIO   228 

FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI   244 

DONATO   305 


NOTE 


In  the  bibliographies  which  are  prefixed  to  each  Hfe,  only 
works  special  to  each  particular  chapter  are  included.  There 
exist,  however,  many  general  works  which  are  excluded  from 
the  special  headings  in  order  to  avoid  repetition,  since  each 
might  be  cited  for  nearly  all  of  the  biographies  in  these  vol- 
umes. Such  books  are  the  various  art  periodicals,  the  cyclop?e- 
di{e  and  dictionaries,  the  general  histories,  or  works  upon  par- 
ticular galleries  or  schools  of  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  Kugler, 
Miintz,  Morel li,  Richter,  Frizzoni,  Lafenestre,  Mantz,  Springer, 
Symonds,  Liibke,  Woltmann  and  Woennann,  Perkins,  Burck- 
hardt,  Bode,  and  the  admirable  catalogues  of  several  of  the 
great  galleries,  such  as  Berlin,  the  Brera,  etc.  For  the  full 
titles  of  these  works  the  general  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  volume  should  be  consulted.  For  additional  special 
bibliography,  referring  principally  to  the  earlier  lives*  see  the 
Appendix. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  Vasari  has  at  the  end  of  many 
of  his  biographies  introduced  a  number  of  short  notices  of 
pupils'  works.  These  notices,  in  many  cases  almost  com- 
plete liors-d'ceuvres,  have  usually  been  omitted  by  the  editors 
for  the  economy  of  space. 


GIOVANNI  OIMABUE,  FLORENTHSTE  PAINTER 

[Born  1240;  died  circa  1302.] 

THE  overwhelming  flood  of  evils  by  which  unhappy 
Italy  had  been  submerged  and  devastated  had  not 
only  destroyed  whatever  could  properly  be  called 
buildings,  but,  a  still  more  deplorable  consequence,  had 
totally  exterminated  the  artists  themselves,  when,  by  the 
will  of  God,  in  the  year  1240,  Giovanni  Cimabue,  of  the 
noble  family  of  that  name,^  was  born,  in  the  city  of 
Florence,  to  give  the  first  light  to  the  art  of  paint- 
ing. This  youth,  as  he  grew  up,  being  considered  by 
his  father  and  others  to  give  proof  of  an  acute  judg- 
ment and  a  clear  understanding,  was  sent  to  Santa  Ma- 
ria Novella  to  study  letters  under  a  relation,  who  was 
then  master  in  grammar  to  the  novices  of  that  convent. 
But  Cimabue,  instead  of  devoting  himself  to  letters,  con- 

In  the  annotations  to  these  volumes  all  references  to  Milanesi  refer  to  the 
Florentine  edition  of  Vasari,  1878-1882,  by  the  late  Gaetano  Milanesi.  Notes 
not  numbered,  but  designated  by  star,  dagger,  and  double  dagger,  refer  to  text- 
ual corrections.  Differences  of  one  year  in  dates  given  are  frequently  caused 
by  the  use  on  the  part  of  different  authorities  of  so-called  "old  style"  and 
"  new  style  "  in  chronology.  All  of  the  headings  to  the  lives  have  been  made 
conformable  with  those  of  Milanesi. 

'  Cimabue' s  name  was  Cenni  di  Pepe,  and  not  Gualtieri  as  stated  by 
Baldinucci. 

The  lives  of  Vasari  begin  practically  with  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, the  epoch  of  Dante,  of  political  strife,  and  civil  war.  In  this  period 
of  political  fermentation  the  arts  throve ;  already  great  churches  which  be- 
longed not  to  the  old,  but  to  the  new,  order  of  things  had  arisen  ;  the  Duomo 
of  Pisa,  the  cathedrals  of  Lucca  and  Parma,  San  Giovanni  of  Florence,  and 
Sant'  Ambrogio  of  Milan,  and  the  commencement  of  Vasari's  work,  as  to  the 
period  treated,  coincides  with  the  new  birth  of  sculpture  with  Niccola  Pisano, 
of  painting  with  Giotto  di  Bondone, 


2 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


sumed  the  whole  clay  in  drawing  men,  horses,  houses,  and 
other  various  fancies,  on  his  books  and  different  papers, — an 
occupation  to  which  he  felt  himself  impelled  by  nature ;  and 
this  natural  inclination  was  favoured  by  fortune,  for  the  gov- 
ernors of  the  city  had  invited  certain  Greek  painters  to 
Florence,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  art  of  painting, 
which  had  not  merely  degenerated,  but  was  altogether  lost. 
These  artists,  among  other  works,  began  to  paint  the  chapel 
of  the  G-ondi,  situate  next  the  principal  chapel,  in  Santa 
Maria  Novella,^  the  roof  and  walls  of  which  are  now  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  time, — and  Cimabue,  often  escaping 
from  the  school,  and  having  already  made  a  commencement 
in  the  art  he  was  so  fond  of,  would  stand  watching  those 
masters  at  their  work,  the  day  through.  Judging  from 
these  circumstances,  his  father,  as  well  as  the  artists  them- 
selves, concluded  him  to  be  well-endowed  for  painting,  and 
thought  that  much  might  be  hoped  from  his  future  efforts, 
if  he  were  devoted  to  that  art.  Giovanni  was  accordingly, 
to  his  no  small  satisfaction,  placed  with  those  masters. 
From  this  time  he  laboured  incessantly,  and  was  so  far 
aided  by  his  natural  powers,  that  he  soon  greatly  surpassed 
his  teachers  both  in  design  and  colouring.  For  these  mas- 
ters, caring  little  for  the  progress  of  art,  had  executed  their 
works  as  we  now  see  them,  not  in  the  excellent  manner  of 
the  ancient  Greeks,  but  in  the  rude  modern  style  of  their 
own  day.  Wherefore,  though  Cimabue  imitated  his  Greek 
instructors,  he  very  much  improved  the  art,  relieving  it 
greatly  from  their  uncouth  manner,  and  doing  honour  to 
his  country  by  the  name  that  he  acquired,  and  by  the  works 
which  he  performed.  Of  this  we  have  evidence  in  Florence, 
from  the  pictures  which  he  painted  there,  as,  for  example, 

2  Vasari  is  in  error  regarding  the  painting  of  the  Gondi  chapel  by  Greek 
masters  who  antedated  Cimabue,  for  the  church  itself  was  not  begun  until 
that  artist  was  forty  years  old.  Cimabue  was  one  of  the  earliest  painters  who 
could  at  once  be  called  great  and  individual.  Grandeur  and  beauty  re-entered 
into  painting  in  his  work,  but  the  history  of  Italian  art  is  the  history  of 
an  evolution,  and  no  one  artist  can  be  considered  as  the  father  of  Italian 
painting. 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


3 


the  front  of  the  altar  ^  of  Santa  Cecilia/  and  a  picture  of  the 
Virgin,  in  Santa  Croce,  which  was,  and  is  still,  attached  to 
one  of  the  pilasters  on  the  right  of  the  choir. ^  After  this 
he  painted  a  small  picture  of  St.  Francis,^  in  panel,  on  a 
gold  ground,  drawing  it,  a  new  thing  in  those  times,  from 
nature,^  with  such  means  as  he  could  obtain,  and  placing 
around  it  the  whole  history  of  the  saint  in  twenty  small 
pictures,  full  of  minute  figures,  on  a  ground  of  gold. 

Having  afterwards  undertaken  to  paint  a  large  picture  in 
the  abbey  of  the  Santa  Trinita  in  Florence,  for  the  monks 
of  Vallombrosa,  he  made  great  efforts  to  justify  the  high 
opinion  already  formed  of  him,  and  evinced  improved 
powers  of  invention  in  that  work,  and  displayed  a  fine  man- 
ner in  the  attitudes  of  the  Virgin,  whom  he  depicted  with 
the  child  in  her  arms,  and  with  numerous  angels,  in  the  act 
of  worship,  around  her ;  on  a  gold  ground.  The  picture 
being  finished,  was  placed  by  the  monks  over  the  high-altar 
of  the  church,^  whence,  being  afterwards  removed  to  give 

3  The  altar,  though  very  simple  in  the  time  of  the  early  Christians,  became 
more  complex  in  the  middle  ages,  especially  as  regards  decoration.  Back  of 
it,  or  upon  it,  was  usually  a  devotional  picture,  called  the  altar-piece,  and  this 
was  frequently  surmounted  by  a  semicircular  picture  of  smaller  size,  called  a 
Lunette.  The  frame  of  the  altar-piece  was  often  richly  ornamented  with 
heads  or  arabesques.  The  altar-piece  was  frequently  provided  with  doors 
which  might  be  painted  on  both  sides.  A  picture  with  one  door  was  called  a 
Diptych,  as  there  were  two  panels  ;  with  two  doors  it  was  a  Triptych.  In 
some  cases  there  were  many  doors  ;  it  was  then  known  as  a  Polyptych.  Under 
the  altar-piece  was  a  small  compartment  known  as  the  Tabernacle,  which  was 
used  to  contain  the  reserved  sacrament.  The  door,  or  doors  of  the  Tabernacle, 
were  usually  richly  ornamented.  The  step  on  the  top  of  the  altar  on  which  the 
candlesticks,  crucifix,  flower-vases,  etc.,  were  placed,  was  called  the predella^ 
or  gradino,  and  was  often  decorated  with  paintings,  usually  three  or  five  in 
number.  There  is  a  recent  series  of  articles  on  "  Christian  Altars  and  their 
Accessories,"  by  Mx.  C.  C.  Coleman,  in  the  Architectural  Record,  IV.,  3  and 
v.,  3.    New  York,  1895. 

■»  This  work,  which  is  not  considered  authentic,  is  now  in  the  Florentine 
Academy. 

6  This  picture  is  in  the  National  Gallery  at  London.  It  is  doubtful  if  it 
was  painted  by  Cimabue. 

«  Still  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Francis  in  Santa  Croce,  but  probably  not  by 
Cimabue, 

Here  drawn  from  nature  means  drawn  from  a  living  model,  but  not  from 
St,  Francis  himself,  who  had  died  many  years  before. 
8  This  picture  is  in  the  Academy  at  Florence 


4 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


place  to  that  work  of  Alexis  Baldovinetti/  which  remains 
there  to  this  day,  it  was  placed  in  a  smaller  chapel  of  the 
south  aisle  of  the  same  church. 

Oimabue  next  painted  in  fresco  at  the  hospital  of  the 
Porcellana,  at  the  corner  of  the  Via  Nuova,  which  leads 
into  the  Borgo  Ogni  Santi.^^  On  the  front  of  this  building, 
which  has  the  principal  door  in  the  centre,  he  painted  the 
Virgin  receiving  the  annunciation  from  the  angel,  on  one 
side,  and  Jesus  Christ,  with  Oleophas,  and  Luke,  on  the 
other;  all  figures  of  the  size  of  life.  In  this  work  he  de- 
parted still  more  decidedly  from  the  dry  formal  manner  of 
his  instructors,  giving  more  life  and  movement  to  the 
draperies,  vestments,  and  other  accessories,  and  rendering 
all  more  flexible  and  natural  than  was  common  to  the  man- 
ner of  those  Greeks,  whose  works  were  full  of  hard  lines  and 
sharp  angles,  as  well  in  mosaic  as  in  painting.  And  this 
rude,  unskilful,  and  common-place  manner,  the  Greeks  had 
acquired,  not  so  much  from  study  or  of  settled  purpose,  as 
from  having  servilely  followed  certain  fixed  rules  and  habits, 
transmitted  through  a  long  series  of  years,  by  one  painter 
to  another  down  to  those  times,  while  none  ever  thought  of 
the  amelioration  of  his  design,  the  embellishment  of  his 
colouring,  or  the  improvement  of  his  invention.  This  work 
being  completed,  Cimabue  was  again  summoned  by  the 
same  prior,  who  had  employed  him  for  the  works  of  Santa 

»  The  picture  by  Baldovinetti  was  in  turn  removed  to  give  place  to  Dandini's 
painting  of  the  Trinity. 

10  Fresco  is  a  method  of  painting  on  walls  or  other  surfaces,  which  are  cov- 
ered with  a  ground  or  plaster,  with  which,  if  they  are  properly  chosen  and 
applied,  the  colors  will  become  incorporated.  Fresco  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  first  the  true  fresco  (Italian,  huon  fresco),  and,  second,  dry  freaco 
(Italian,  fresco  a  secco).  In  the  true  fresco  the  painting  is  done  on  the  wet 
surface,  made  of  sand  and  lime.  The  earthy  pigments  are  chiefly  used  because 
they  are  not  decomposed  by  the  lime.  The  color  sinks  into  the  wet  plaster, 
which  on  drying  absorbs  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and  forms  in  reality  a 
crystalline  layer  over  the  painting,  protecting  it.  In  the  dry  fresco  the  last 
coat  of  plaster  (intonaco),  when  dry,  is  scraped  smooth,  then  wetted  thor- 
oughly a  few  hours  before  painting,  and  also  immediately  before  the  work  is 
begun.    (See  also  note  23. ) 

11  This  painting  was  destroyed.    The  hospital  no  longer  exists, 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


5 


Croce,  and  he  now  painted  for  him  a  colossal  crucifix  on 
wood,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  in  that  church."  The  exe- 
cution of  this  crucifix  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  prior, 
who  caused  the  artist  to  accompany  him  to  his  convent 
of  San  Francesco  in  Pisa,  where  Oimabue  painted  a  picture 
of  San  Francesco.  This  was  considered  by  the  Pisans  to  be 
a  work  of  extraordinary  merit,  having  more  beauty  of  ex- 
pression in  the  head,  and  more  grace  in  the  draperies,  than 
had  ever  been  seen  in  the  Greek  manner  up  to  that  time, 
not  only  in  Pisa,  but  in  Italy. 

Oimabue  afterwards  painted  for  the  same  church  a  large 
picture  of  the  Virgin,^^  with  the  Infant  in  her  arms,  and 
with  angels  around  her, — this  also  was  on  a  gold  ground ; 
it  was  soon  afterwards  removed  from  the  position  it  had 
first  occupied  to  make  way  for  the  marble  altar  which 
now  stands  there,  and  was  placed  within  the  church,  near 
the  door,  and  on  the  left  hand ;  for  this  work  Oimabue 
obtained  high  praise,  and  was  largely  rewarded  by  the 
Pisans.  In  the  same  city  of  Pisa,  he  also  painted,  at  the 
request  of  the  then  abbot  of  San  Paolo  in  Ripa  d'Arno,  a 
small  picture  of  St.  Agnes,  on  panel,  with  the  whole  story 
of  her  life  around  her,  in  small  figures  ;  this  picture  is  now 
over  the  altar  of  the  Virgin  in  the  above-named  church.'^ 
The  name  of  Oimabue  becoming  widely  known  by  these 
labours,  he  was  invited  to  Assisi,  a  city  of  Umbria,  where,  in 
company  with  certain  Greek  masters,  lie  painted  a  portion 
of  the  vaulted  roof  in  the  lower  church  of  San  Francesco, 

"  A  crucifix  is  still  in  the  sacristy  which  has  been  ascribed  to  Cimabue. 
13  The  picture  of  San  Francesco  is  lost. 

i<  This  picture  is  in  the  Louvre.  The  St.  Agnes  is  lost. 

We  have  inserted  here  Vasari's  description  of  the  building  of  San  Fran- 
cesco.   It  is  taken  from  the  life  of  Arnolfo  di  Lapo. 

"It  was  about  this  time  that  the  order  of  Friars  Minors  of  St.  Francis  was 
founded,  and  this  order,  being  confirmed  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  in  1206,  ex- 
tended itself  in  such  a  manner,  not  only  in  Italy,  bat  in  all  other  parts  of  the 
world,  (devotion  to  the  saint  increasing  together  with  the  number  of  the  friars,) 
that  there  was  scarcely  any  city  of  importance  which  did  not  build  churches 
and  convents  for  them,  at  a  vast  amoaiit  of  cost,  and  each  according  to  its 
means.    These  things  being  so,  the  Frato  Elia,  two  years  before  the  death  of 


6 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


together  with  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ  and  that  of  St. 
Francis,  on  the  walls  of  the  same  church.    In  these  works 

St.  Francis,  and  while  the  saint  was  preaching  abroad,  as  General  of  the 
Order,  leaving  Frate  Elia  prior  in  Assisi, — this  Elia  commenced  the  building 
of  a  church  to  the  honour  of  the  Virgin ;  but  St.  Francis  dying  in  the  mean- 
time, all  Christendom  came  flocking  to  visit  the  body  of  him  who,  in  life  and 
in  death,  was  known  to  be  so  much  the  friend  of  God,  when  every  man,  mak- 
ing an  offering  to  the  holy  place  according  to  his  ability,  large  sums  were 
collected,  and  it  was  decreed  that  the  church,  commenced  by  the  Frate  Elia, 
should  be  continued  on  a  much  more  extended  and  magnificent  scale.  There 
was  then  a  great  scarcity  of  good  architects,  and  as  the  work  to  be  done  re- 
quired an  excellent  artist,  having  to  be  built  upon  a  very  high  hill,  at  the  foot 
of  which  flows  a  torrent  called  the  Tescio,  a  certain  Maestro  Jacopo,*  a  Ger- 
man, was  invited  to  Arezzo,  after  much  deliberation,  as  the  best  who  was 
then  to  be  found.  This  Jacopo,  having  received  the  commands  of  the  fathers, 
who  were  then  holding  a  general  chapter  of  their  order  respecting  this  matter 
in  Assisi,  then  carefully  examined  the  site,  and  designed  the  plan  of  a  very 
beautiful  church  and  convent.  The  model  presented  three  ranges  of  build- 
ings, placed  one  above  the  other :  the  lowermost  subterranean  ;  the  two  others 
forming  two  churches,  of  which  the  first  was  to  serve  as  a  vestibule,  with  a 
spacious  portico  and  colonnade  around  it ;  the  second  was  set  apart  for  the 
sanctuary,  the  entrance  to  this  last  being  by  a  very  convenient  range  of  steps, 
ascending  to  t>he  principal  chapel,  and  these,  being  divided  into  two  flights, 
encircled  the  chapel,  that  the  upper  church  might  be  attained  the  more  com- 
modiously.  To  this  temple  Maestro  Jacopo  gave  the  form  of  the  letter  T,  the 
length  being  equal  to  five  times  the  breadth,  and  the  roof  being  raised  on  bold 
groined  arches,  supported  by  massive  piers ;  after  this  model  he  constructed 
the  whole  of  this  truly  grand  edifice,  observing  the  same  order  throughout 
every  part,  excepting  that,  instead  of  pointed,  he  raised  round  arches  on  the 
upper  supports  between  the  apsis  and  the  principal  chapel,  as  considered  of 
greater  strength.  Before  the  principal  chapel  of  the  lower  church  was  placed 
the  altar,  beneath  which,  when  completed,  the  body  of  St.  Francis  was  laid 
with  great  solemnity ;  and,  since  the  actual  sepulchre,  in  which  the  body  of 
the  glorious  saint  reposes,  was  never  to  be  approached  by  the  foot  of  man,  the 
first,  that  is  the  subterranean  church, t  had  its  doors  walled  up,  and  around 

*  Morelli  (Italian  Masters  in  German  Galleries)  refers  to  the  fact  that  the 
people  of  the  extreme  north  of  Italy,  Ticino,  Como,  etc.,  were  often  called 
"  Alemanni,"  so  that  we  may  reasonably  doubt  that  San  Francesco  was  built 
by  a  German,  as  the  style  is  not  German  but  Italian  Gothic. 

t  The  history  of  this  invisible  church— blindly  believed  by  all,  and  trans- 
mitted from  age  to  age,  down  to  our  own  days — was  ultimately  disproved, 
when,  diligent  search  being  made  for  the  remains  of  St.  Francis,  in  the  year 
1818,  it  was  found  that  this  said  church  had  never  existed,  and  that  the  body 
of  the  holy  patriarch  had  been  buried  in  a  tomb  partly  hewn  from  the  rock, 
but  afterwards  closed  in  with  very  thick  walls,  under  the  high  altar  of  the  lower 
church.  See  Memorie  storiche  del  ritrovamento  delle  sacre  spoglie  di  San 
Francesco  D' Assisi.    Assisi,  1824.— -E'd.  Flor.,  1846. 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


7 


he  greatly  surpassed  those  Greek  masters/"^  and  encouraged 
by  this,  he  began  alone  to  paint  the  upper  church  in  fresco. 
In  the  apsis  of  the  church,  beyond  the  choir,  he  painted 
certain  passages  from  the  history  of  the  Virgin,  in  four 
compartments, — her  death,  when  her  soul  is  borne  by  Christ 
to  Heaven  upon  a  throne  of  clouds, — and  her  coronation, 
when  he  places  the  crown  on  her  head  in  the  midst  of 
a  choir  of  angels ;  numerous  saints,  male  and  female, 
standing  below ;  works  now  nearly  obliterated  by  time  and 
dust.  In  the  vaults  of  the  roof,  which  are  five,^^  Oimabue 
depicted  various  historical  scenes  in  like  manner.    In  the 

the  above-named  altar  was  placed  a  very  large  iron  grating,  richly  adorned 
with  marbles  and  mosaic,  which  permitted  the  tomb  beneath  to  be  seen.  Two 
sacristies  were  erected  beside  the  building,  with  a  campanile,  the  height  of 
which  was  equal  to  five  times  its  diameter ;  a  very  high  pyramid  of  eight  sides 
surmounted  the  tower,  but  this,  being  in  danger  of  falling,  was  removed.  The 
whole  work  was,  by  the  genius  of  Maestro  Jacopo,  the  German,  and  the  at- 
tentive care  of  Frate  Elia,  completed  within  the  space  of  four  years  only. 
After  the  death  of  Elia,  and  to  the  end  that  this  vast  building  might  never 
be  destroyed  by  time,  twelve  enormous  towers  were  erected  around  the  lower 
church,  in  each  of  which  a  spiral  staircase  was  constructed  ascending  from 
the  ground  to  the  summit  of  the  edifice.  In  the  course  of  time,  also,  many 
chapels,  and  other  rich  embellishments  of  various  kinds,  have  been  added." 
"  And  the  works  of  his  master,  Giunta  da  Pisa. 

18  According  to  VVoltmann  and  Woermann,  History  of  Painting,  Cimabue 
has  one  fresco  of  a  Madonna  and  Angels  in  the  north  transept  of  the  lower 
church,  while  in  the  north  transept  of  the  upper  there  is  a  Last  J udgment 
which  resembles  his  work,  but  is  too  seriously  damaged  to  admit  of  verifica- 
'  tion.  In  the  nave  of  the  upper  church  three  of  the  five  bays  of  the  vault- 
ing are  decorated  by  Cimabue,  the  other  two  having  only  gold  stars  on  a  blue 
ground.  The  western  bay  contains  the  four  Fathers  of  the  Church ;  the 
central,  medallion  heads  of  Christ,  Mary,  John  the  Baptist,  and  Francis  ;  the 
eastern,  the  four  Evangelists.  The  two  courses  of  pictures  upon  the  walls, 
by  Cimabue  and  his  pupils,  comprise  thirty-six  subjects,  two  in  each  bay, 
some  of  them  practically  destroyed,  and  many  of  them  badly  damaged. 

Genesis,  as  far  as  the  story  of  Joseph,  is  illustrated  on  the  south  wall ; 
Gospel  History,  on  the  north  wall ;  the  Ascension  and  the  Descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  are  the  lower  subjects  of  the  west  wall ;  above  are  figures  of  Paul  and 
Peter.  Rain,  which  has  considerably  injured  the  vaulting,  has  nevertheless  in- 
troduced some  lovely  accidental  colouring  caused  by  the  running  of  the  blues 
and  greens,  these  latter  being  the  prevailing  tones  in  the  very  beautiful 
general  scheme  of  coloration.  In  the  spring  of  1892  the  vaulting  was  being 
restored,  but  the  artist  assured  us  that  he  should  limit  himself  to  filling  ia 
flat  tones,  and  should  restore  no  lines  arbitrarily. 


8 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


first,  over  the  choir,  he  placed  the  four  Evangelists,  larger 
than  life,  and  so  well  done,  that  even  in  our  days  they  are 
admitted  to  possess  much  merit,  the  freshness  of  colouring 
in  the  flesh  -  tints  proving  that  painting  in  fresco  was, 
thanks  to  the  labours  of  Cimabue,  beginning  to  make  im- 
portant advances.  The  second  vault  he  adorned  with 
golden  stars  on  a  ground  of  ultramarine.  In  the  third 
he  painted,  in  medallions,  Jesus  Christ,  the  Virgin  Mother, 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  St.  Francis,  that  is,  a  figure  in 
each  medallion,  and  a  medallion  in  each  bay  of  the  vault. 
Between  this  and  the  fifth  vault,  he  painted  the  fourth, 
also  in  stars  of  gold  on  a  ground  of  ultramarine,  like  the 
second.  In  the  fifth  he  placed  the  four  Doctors  of  the 
Church,  and  beside  each  of  the  Doctors  stood  a  brother  of 
one  of  the  four  principal  religious  orders  ;  without  doubt,  a 
most  laborious  work,  and  executed  with  extreme  diligence. 
When  the  vaults  were  completed,  Cimabue  next  painted 
the  upper  part  of  the  wall  of  the  north  aisle,  also  in  fresco, 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  church.  Near  the  high 
altar,  and  in  the  space  between  the  windows  entirely  up 
to  the  roof,  he  painted  eight  historical  pictures  from  the 
Old  Testament,  beginning  with  the  early  chapters  of  Gen- 
esis, and  taking  the  most  prominent  events  in  due  order. 
Around  the  windows,  and  to  the  point  where  they  ter- 
minate in  the  gallery  which  encircles  the  interior  of  the 
building,  he  depicted  the  remaining  portions  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  eight  other  historical  scenes.  Opposite  to 
these  pictures,  and  also  in  sixteen  compartments,  he  painted 
the  lives  of  the  Virgin  and  of  Jesus  Christ ;  while  on  the  end 
faQade,  below,  over  the  principal  door,  and  around  the  rose 
window,  he  placed  the  ascension  of  the  Virgin  in  heaven, 
together  with  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  Apostles. 
This  work,  truly  great  and  rich,  and  most  admirably  exe- 
cuted, must,  in  my  opinion,  have  caused  the  utmost  as- 
tonishment in  the  world  of  that  day,  more  especially  as  the 
art  of  painting  had  been  for  so  long  a  time  in  complete 
darkness.    To  myself,  who  saw  it  for  the  second  time  in 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


9 


the  year  1563,  it  appeared  most  beautiful,  more  particularly 
when  I  considered  that  obscurity  of  art  from  the  shades  of 
which  Cimabue  had  found  means  to  elicit  so  much  light. 
But  of  all  these  paintings  (a  thing  which  merits  considera- 
tion), those  of  the  vaults  being  less  exposed  to  dust  and 
other  accidents,  are  in  much  better  preservation  than  any 
of  the  others.  Having  completed  these  works,  Cimabue 
began  to  paint  the  lower  part  of  the  walls,  namely  from  the 
windows  downwards,  and  made  some  progress  therein,  but 
being  recalled  to  Florence  by  his  private  affairs,  he  did  not 
continue  this  work,  and  it  was  finished,  as  will  be  seen  in 
its  due  place,  by  Giotto,  many  years  after. 

Having  thus  returned  to  Florence,  Cimabue  next  worked 
in  the  cloister  of  Santo  Spirito.'*  The  entire  side  next  the 
church  is  painted  by  other  masters,  in  the  Greek  manner ; 
but  three  arches,  containing  events  from  the  life  of  Christ, 
are  by  his  own  hand,  and  certainly  display  much  power  of 
design.  About  the  same  time  he  sent  some  of  his  works, 
executed  in  Florence,  to  Empoli,  where  they  are  still  pre- 
served ^  with  great  veneration  in  the  parochial  church  of 
that  place.  He  afterwards  painted  the  picture  of  the  Vir- 
gin, for  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  where  it  is  sus- 
pended on  high,  between  the  chapel  of  the  Rucellai  family 
and  that  of  the  Bardi,  of  Vernio.^^  This  picture  is  of  larger 
size  than  any  figure  that  had  been  painted  down  to  those 
times  ;  and  the  angels  surrounding  it,  make  it  evident  that, 
although  Cimabue  still  retained  the  Greek  manner,  he  was 
nevertheless  gradually  approaching  the  mode  of  outline  and 
general  method  of  modern  times.  Thus  it  happened  that  this 
work  was  an  object  of  so  much  admiration  to  the  people  of 
that  day — they  having  then  never  seen  anything  better — that 
it  was  carried  in  solemn  procession,  with  the  sound  of  trum- 

19  The  works  executed  by  Cimabue  in  Santo  Spirito  have  perished. 

20  Some  remains  of  old  pictures  still  exist  in  the  chapter  house,  but  they  do 
not  appear  to  be  of  the  time  of  Cimabue.    See  Milanesi. 

21  The  Madonna  of  the  Rucellai  still  exists  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Novella.    It  is  one  of  Cimabue' s  greatest  works. 


10 


GIOVANNI  CiMABtiE 


pets  and  other  festal  demonstrations,  from  the  house  of  Cima- 
hue  to  the  church;,  he  himself  being  highly  rewarded  and 
honoured  for  it.  It  is  further  reported,  and  may  be  read 
in  certain  records  of  old  painters,  that,  whilst  Cimabue  was 
painting  this  picture,  in  a  garden  near  the  gate  of  San  Pietro, 
King  Charles  the  Elder,  of  Anjou,^  passed  through  Florence, 
and  the  authorities  of  the  city,  among  other  marks  of  respect, 
conducted  him  to  see  the  picture  of  Cimabue.  When  this 
work  was  thus  shewn  to  the  king,  it  had  not  before  been 
seen  by  any  one  ;  wherefore  all  the  men  and  women  of  Flor- 
ence hastened  in  great  crowds  to  admire  it,  making  all  pos- 
sible demonstrations  of  delight.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
neighbourhood,  rejoicing  in  this  occurrence,  ever  afterwards 
called  that  place  Borgo  Allegri  ;  and  this  name  it  has  ever 
since  retained,  although  in  process  of  time  it  became  en- 
closed within  the  walls  of  the  city. 

In  San  Francesco  of  Pisa — where  Cimabue  painted  some 
other  pictures,  as  has  been  already  remarked — may  be  seen  a 
painting  in  distemper,^  by  his  hand  ;  ^  it  is  in  the  cloister,  near 
the  door  which  leads  into  the  church,  and  is  a  small  picture 
representing  Christ  on  the  Cross,  with  numerous  angels 
around  him ;  they  are  weeping,  and  supporting  with  their 
hands  certain  words,  which  are  written  round  the  head  of 

Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX,  of  France,  passed  through  Flor- 
ence in  1267,  one  year  after  his  coronation  as  King  of  Sicily.  Neither  Males- 
pini  nor  Villani  records  his  visit  to  Cimabue,  and  the  name  of  Borgo  Allegri 
probably  had  another  derivation. — Milanesi,  abridged. 

23  Tempera^  or  distemper,  is  a  process  of  painting  in  which  solid  pigments  are 
mixed  with  a  water  medium  in  which  a  gummy  or  gelatinous  material  is  used 
to  prevent  the  colour  scaling  off.  The  yolk  of  an  egg  or  the  milky  juice  from 
the  shoots  of  the  fig-tree  was  employed  by  many  of  the  old  masters  to  make 
the  colour  adhere.  The  advantages  of  tempera  are  that  the  design  may  be 
transferred  to  a  dry  wall  on  which  the  painter  may  work  at  leisure  ;  and  that 
a  greater  range  of  pigments  may  be  employed.  The  tempera  process  may  be 
applied  to  wood,  vellum,  or  other  surfaces.  Tempera  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  dry  fresco  {fresco  a  secco),  which  is  described  in  note  10. 

2*  The  pictures  in  San  Francesco  are  lost.  The  colossal  mosaic  in  the  apsis 
of  the  cathedral  of  Pisa  was  designed  by  Cimabue.  It  was  commenced  in 
1301  or  1302,  and  the  figure  of  the  Virgin  is  by  one  Vincinus  of  Pistoja,  and 
was  executed  in  1321. 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


11 


Christ,  and  which  they  direct  towards  the  ear  of  the  Virgin, 
who  stands,  also  weeping,  on  the  right  hand  ;  while  on  the  left 
is  John  the  Evangelist,  towards  whom  they  likewise  direct 
a  portion  of  the  scroll,  and  whose  expression  is  one  of  deep 
grief.  The  words  addressed  to  the  Virgin  are,  "  Mulier 
ecce  filius  tuns,'^  and  those  to  St.  John,  "  Ecce  mater  tua." 
A  third  sentence,  supported  by  another  angel,  placed  some- 
what apart,  is  as  follows  :  Ex  illd  hord  accepit  earn  disci- 
pulus  in  suam."  Hence  we  perceive  that  Oimabne  origi- 
nated the  invention  of  lending  the  aid  of  words  to  art,  for 
the  better  expression  of  the  meaning, — certainly  a  new  and 
peculiar  expedient. 

By  these  and  other  works,  Cimabue  had  now  acquired  a 
great  name,  as  well  as  large  profits,  and  was  appointed — 
together  with  Arnolfo  Lapi,  an  artist  then  highly  renowned 
in  architecture — to  superintend  the  building  of  Santa  Maria 
del  Fiore,  in  Florence.^  But  at  length,  and  when  he  had 
lived  sixty  years,  he  departed  to  another  life,  in  the  year 
1300,^^  having  achieved  little  less  than  the  resurrection  of 
painting  from  the  dead.  He  left  many  disciples,  and,  among 
others,  Giotto,  who  afterwards  became  a  most  cminont 
painter,  and  long  dwelt  in  the  house  inhabited  by  his  mas- 
ter, in  the  Via  del  Cocomero.  Cimabue  was  entombed  in 
Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  the  following  epitaph  being  com- 
posed on  him  by  one  of  the  Nini  : 

"Credidit  ut  Cimabos  picturte  castra  tenere 
Sic  tenuit,  vivens,  nunc  tenet  astra  poli." 

I  will  not  omit  to  observe,  that  if  the  greatness  of  Gi- 
otto, his  disciple,  had  not  diminished  the  glory  of  Cima- 
bue, his  fame  would  have  risen  still  higher,  as  Dante  re- 
marks in  his  Commedia,  where,  alluding,  in  the  eleventh 

«  This  statement  of  Vasari  has  not  been  substantiated  either  by  documents 
or  the  writings  of  early  authors. 
28  1302  rather. 


12 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


canto  of  the  Purgatorio,  to  this  inscription  on  the  tomb,^ 
he  says  : 

"  Credette  Cimabue  nella  pintura 
Tener  lo  campo,  ed  ora  ha  Giotto  11  grido, 
Si  che  la  fama  di  colui  s'  oscura." 

Alluding  to  these  verses,  a  commentator  of  Dante,^  who 
wrote  while  Giotto  was  still  living  —  ten  or  twelve  years 
after  the  death  of  Dante  himself  ;  ^  that  is,  about  the  year 
1334  —  has  the  following  remarks.  He  is  speaking  of  Cima- 
bue, and  these  are  his  precise  words  :  ^'  Cimabue,  of  Flor- 
ence, a  painter  of  the  time  of  our  author,  knew  more  of  the 
noble  art  than  any  other  man  ;  but  he  was  so  arrogant  and 
proud  withal,  that  if  any  one  discovered  a  fault  in  his  work, 
or  if  he  perceived  one  himself  (as  will  often  happen  to  the 
artist,  who  fails  from  the  defects  in  the  material  that  he 
uses,  or  from  insufficiency  of  the  instrument  with  which 
he  works),  he  would  instantly  destroy  that  work,  however 
costly  it  might  be.  Giotto,  of  that  same  city  of  Florence, 
was,  and  is,  the  most  eminent  of  painters ;  and  his  works 
bear  testimony  for  him  in  Eome,  in  Naples,  at  Avignon, 
Florence,  Padua,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  world. 
This  commentary  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Kev.  Don 
Vincenzio  Borghini,  prior  of  the  Innocents,  a  man  not  only 
illustrious  for  elevation  of  mind,  for  goodness,  and  for 
learning,  but  also  a  lover  of,  and  so  well  versed  in,  all  the 
nobler  arts,  that  he  has  merited  to  be  elected,  as  by  our  lord 

^"^  As  the  epitaph  was  written  after  the  publication  of  the  Commedia^ 
Dante  could  hardly  have  referred  to  it  in  his  lines. 

28  "  Cimabue  thought  to  lord  it  over  Painting's  field  ; 
And  now  the  cry  is  Giotto's,  and  his  name  eclipsed." 

Dante,  Gary's  Translation. 

'9  This  commentary,  which  is  known  as  the  Anonimo,  was  first  published 
in  Pisa  by  Alessandro  Torri,  1827-30. 

30  It  is  said  that  Cimabue  taught  Dante  drawing,  and  possibly  also  painting. 
Boccaccio  mentions  the  fact,  and  Dante  himself  says  in  the  Vita  Nuova 
*'  whilst  I  thought  of  her  [Beatrice]  I  drew  an  angel." 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


13 


the  Duke  Cosmo  he  judiciously  has  been,  to  the  office  of 
ducal  representative  (vice-president)  in  our  Academy  of 
Design.  But  to  return  to  Cimabue  :  Giotto  certainly  did 
obscure  his  fame,  as  a  great  light  diminishes  the  splendour 
of  a  lesser  one  ;  so  that,  although  Cimabue  may  be  consid- 
ered, perhaps,  the  first  cause  of  the  restoration  of  the  art 
of  painting,  yet  Giotto,  his  disciple,  impelled  by  laudable 
ambition,  and  well  aided  by  heaven  and  nature,  was  the 
man  who,  attaining  to  superior  elevation  of  thought,  threw 
open  the  gates  of  the  true  way  to  those  who  afterwards 
exalted  the  art  to  that  perfection  and  greatness  which 
it  displays  in  our  age  ;  when,  accustomed  as  men  are, 
daily,  to  see  the  prodigies  and  miracles,  nay,  the  impos- 
sibilities, now  performed  by  artists,  they  have  arrived  at 
such  a  point  tluit  they  no  longer  marvel  at  anything  accom- 
plished by  men,  even  though  it  be  more  divine  than  human. 
Fortunate,  indeed,  are  they  who  now  labour,  however 
meritoriously,  if  they  do  not  incur  blame  instead  of  praise  ; 
nay,  if  they  can  even  escape  disgrace. 

The  portrait  of  Cimabue  may  be  seen  in  the  chapter  of 
Santa  Maria  Novella.  It  is  by  Simon  of  Siena,  and  is  in 
his  picture  of  the  Church  Militant  and  Triumphant. This 
portrait  is  in  profile,  the  face  meagre,  the  beard  short, 
reddish,  and  pointed  ;  the  liead  enveloped  in  a  hood,  after 
the  manner  of  that  day,  which  is  folded  gracefully  beneath 
the  chin,  and  closely  wraps  the  throat.  The  figure  beside 
Cimabue  is  Simon  of  Siena,  author  of  the  work,  who  has 
painted  himself  by  means  of  two  mirrors,  placed  opposite 
oiich  other,  and  wliich  have  enabled  him  to  give  his  head  in 
profile.  The  soldier  in  armour,  standing  between  them,  is 
supposed  to  be  Count  Guide  Novelli,  then  signore  of  Poppi. 
Of  Cimabue  there  remains  still  to  say,  that,  in  the  com- 
mencement of  a  book  wherein  I  have  collected  drawings  by 
the  hand  of  every  artist  who  has  followed  him  to  these 

"  The  paintings  of  the  Spanish  chapel  in  S.  Maria  Novella  are  described  in 
the  life  of  Simone  Martini. 


14 


GIOVANNI  CIMABUE 


d;iys,^  there  are  some  few  little  things  done  by  him  in 
miniature,  from  which,  although  they  may  now  seem  rather 
crude  than  otherwise,  we  may  yet  perceive  how  greatly  the 
art  of  design  was  improved  by  his  labours.^ 

32  The  remarkable  collection  of  drawings  possessed  by  Vasari  has  been  dis- 
persed.    He  mentions  "'my  book  "  in  many  of  the  lives. 

33  Tradition,  even  more  than  his  existing  works,  has  made  Cimabue  famous, 
since  the  double  testimony  of  Dante  and  Vasari  has  inclined  many  writers  to 
call  him  the  Father  of  Italian  Painting,  by  an  exaggeration  based  upon  a 
misunderstanding  of  the  real  evolution  of  art.  Still,  notwithstanding  his 
Byzantinism  and  rigidity,  we  can  see  in  the  movement  of  his  Christ  Child  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  and  e.spi  cially  in  his  frescoes  of  the  upper  church  of  Assisi, 
some  of  the  earliest,  if  not  Ulc  earliest,  steps  in  the  direction  of  modern  art. 
"An  expression,"  says  Taine  in  bis  Italie,  "  even  when  a  feeble  one,  is  it  not  a 
miraculous  thing,  like  the  first  confused  stammerings  of  a  mute  on  suddenly 
recovering  his  speech  ?  "  And  there  really  is  an  attempt  at  expression  in 
Cimabue  ;  his  figures  try  to  move,  and  try  with  a  success  which  delighted  the 
Florentines,  accustomed  to  the  wooden  and  rigid  Byzantine  figures. 

Although  Dante's  notice,  the  tale  of  the  procession  in  Borgo  Allegri  and 
the  place  which  Vasari  has  given  to  this  painter  at  the  beginning  of  his  Lives, 
combine  to  confer  prestige  upon  Cimabue  and  to  make  him  the  initial  figure 
of  Italian  pictorial  art,  yet  we  must  not  forget  that  a  far  wider  line  of  de- 
marcation is  drawn  between  the  pupil  Giotto  and  Cimabue,  than  between  the 
latter  and  certain  earlier  masters.  In  the  great  Madonna  of  Santa  Maria 
Novella,  and  in  the  figures  of  the  frescoes  that  line  the  upper  walls  at 
Assisi,  the  spark  of  life  has  already  been  communicated  by  Cimabue,  the 
figures  move,  Noah  and  his  family  indeed,  in  the  story  of  the  Ark,  move  al- 
most with  violence,  but  they  are  still  so  Byzantine  in  their  crinkled,  pointed 
drapery,  that  their  mountain  seems  Athos  rather  than  Ararat.  Even  Duccio,  a 
whole  world  removed  by  his  power,  expression,  and  science  from  Cimabue,  is 
somewhat  Byzantine ;  he  is  like  a  wonderful  survival,  rising  immeasurably 
above  those  who  for  centuries  had  preceded  him,  yet  partaking  of  their 
nature.  Giotto  is  the  innovator,  the  pioneer  ;  in  his  frescoes  the  mediaeval 
Tuscan  enters  art  as  a  pictured  presence,  not  the  simulacrum  of  the  missal 
but  the  real,  living  man  of  the  Novelle  of  Sacchetti.  Niccola  precedes  Giotto 
by  a  generation  or  more,  as  sculpture  chronologically  is  the  forerunner  of 
painting,  but  together,  Niccola  and  Giotto  stand  as  the  warders  of  the  gates 
of  Italian  Art. 


ARNOLFO  Dl  LAPO/  FLORENTINE  ARCHITECT 


[Born  1232  (?) ;  died  1310.] 

ARNOLFO,^  by  whose  labours  architecture  made  equal 
progress  with  that  of  painting  under  the  influence  of 
Cimabue,  was  born  in  the  year  1232,  and  was  thirty 
years  okl  when  his  father  died.  He  had  already  attained  high 
repute,  having  not  only  acquired  from  his  father  whatever 
the  latter  could  teach,  but  also  studied  the  art  of  design  un- 
der Cimabue,  for  the  purpose  of  employing  it  in  sculpture. 
He  was  now  considered  the  best  architect  in  Tuscany,  and 
the  Florentines  confided  to  him  the  construction  of  the  outer 
circle  of  their  city  walls,  which  were  founded  in  1284  ;  they 
also  erected  the  Loggia  of  Or  San  Michele,  their  corn  mar- 
ket, after  his  plans,^  covering  it  with  a  simple  roof,  and 
building  the  piers  of  brick.  In  that  year,  when  the  cliff  of 
the  Magnoli,  undermined  by  water,  sank  down  on  the  side 
of  San  Giorgio,  above  Santa  Lucia,  on  the  Via  de'  Bardi,  the 
Florentines  issued  a  decree,  to  the  effect  that  no  building 
should  be  thenceforward  erected  on  that  place,  which  they 
declared  to  be  rendered  perilous  by  the  cause  above  stated  ; 
herein  they  followed  the  counsels  of  Arnolfo,  and  his  judg- 
ment has  proved  to  be  correct  by  the  ruin  in  our  day  of 

•  Arnolfo  was  not  the  son  of  Lapo,  but  of  Cambio,  a  native  of  Colle  di 
Val  d'  Elsa.  Lapo  was  his  fellow-pnpil  under  Niccola  Pisano,  who  Seciim 
ducat  Senas  Ar/ioffur/i  et  Lajmui  suos  discijjulos''''  to  work  on  the  Sienese 
pulpit.  Lapo  was  son  of  Ciuccio  di  Ciuto,  and  brother  of  Goro  and  Donato  ; 
they  all  three  obtained  the  citizenship  of  Siena  in  1372.  The  sculptor's  real 
name  is,  therefore,  Arnolfo  di  Cambio.    See  Milanesi,  L  283,  note  4. 

2  Several  pages  from  the  commencement  of  Vasari's  Arnolfo  have  been 
omitted  here  as  they  are  foreign  to  the  subject.  The  life  of  the  sculptor- 
architect  really  begins  at  this  point. 

3  In  1284.  * 


16 


ARNOLFO  DI  LAPO 


many  magnificent  houses  and  other  buildings.  In  the  year 
1285,  Arnolfo  founded  the  Loggia  and  piazza  of  the 
Priori,  he  rebuilt  the  principal  chapel  of  the  Badia  (abbey) 
of  Florence  ^  with  one  on  each  side  of  it,  restoring  the  church 
and  choir,^  which  had  been  constructed  on  a  much  smaller 
scale  by  Count  Ugo,  the  founder  of  that  abbey.  For  Car- 
dinal Giovanni  degli  Orsini,  the  Pope^s  legate  in  Tuscany, 
Arnolfo  erected  the  camjianile  of  the  above-mentioned 
church,^  a  work  highly  appreciated  in  those  times,  and  de- 
servedly so  ;  but  the  stone- work  of  this  tower  was  not  com- 
pleted until  the  year  1330.  In  the  year  1294,  the  church 
of  Santa  Croce,  belonging  to  the  Friars  Minors,'^  was  founded 
after  the  designs  of  Arnolfo,  when  he  gave  so  ample  an  ex- 
tent to  the  nave  and  side  aisles  of  this  building,  that  the  ex- 
cessive width  rendered  it  impossible  to  bring  the  arches 
within  the  roof  ;  he  therefore,  with  much  judgment,  raised 
arches  from  pier  to  pier,  and  on  these  he  constructed  the 
roofs,  from  which  he  conducted  the  water  by  stone  gutters, 
built  on  the  arches,  giving  them  such  a  degree  of  inclination 
that  the  roofs  were  secured  from  all  injury  from  damp. 
The  novelty  and  ingenuity  of  this  contrivance  was  equal  to 
its  utility,  and  well  deserves  the  consideration  of  our  day. 
At  a  later  period,^  Arnolfo  gave  the  plans  for  the  first  clois- 
ters to  the  old  convent  of  this  church,  and  soon  afterwards 

*  The  Badia  was  founded  in  978,  not  by  Ugo  as  Villani  and  Vasari  relate,  but 
by  Ugo's  mother,  Countess  Willa,  daughter  of  the  great  Marquis  Boniface. 
The  Campanile  was  not  finished  by  Arnolfo  but  postdates  his  death. 

*  Modernized  1625. 

*  Arnolfo  was  dead  at  the  time  (1330)  that  Cardinal  Orsini  asked  the 
Signoria  to  restore  the  Campanile  of  the  Badia.  See  Milanesi,  I.  284, 
note  3. 

^  Santa  Croce,  as  one  ente  rs,  seems  vast,  cold,  and  bare  ;  here  again,  as  in  the 
Duomo,  Arnolfo  appears  to  have  believed  that  great  parts  would  necessarily 
make  up  a  great  eyisemhle.  We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  the  architect 
meant  Santa  Croce  to  have  a  painted  decoration  throughout.  As  has  been  well 
said,  Arnolfo  gives  us  only  the  walls,  saying,  "  immortal  hands  are  to  write 
upon  them,"  and,  in  fact,  the  personal  interest  connected  with  this  Pantheon 
of  the  great  Florentines  is  so  poignant,  the  painted  preaching  of  Giotto  is  sa 
eloquent,  that  one  hardly  thinks  of  the  architecture  at  all. 

8  In  1393,  according  to  Villani.  * 


ARNOLFO  DI  LAPO 


17 


superintended  the  removal  of  the  various  arches*  and  tombs,^ 
in  stone  and  marble,  by  which  the  external  walls  of  the 
church  of  San  Giovanni  were  surrounded/^  placing  a  part  of 
them  behind  the  campanile,  and  on  the  fagade  of  the  Ca- 
nonical Palace,  near  the  oratory  of  San  Zenobio  ;  he  then 
covered  the  eight  walls  of  the  above-named  church  of  San 
Giovanni  with  black  marble  from  Prato,  removing  the 
stones  which  had  been  suffered  to  remain  between  those  old 
marbles.  About  the  same  time,  the  Florentines  desired  to 
erect  certain  buildings  in  the  upper  Valdarno,  above  the 
fortress  of  San  Giovanni  and  Castel  Franco,  for  the  greater 
convenience  of  the  inhabitants  and  the  more  commodious 
supply  of  their  markets  ;  they  entrusted  the  design  of  these 
works  also  to  Arnolfo,  in  the  year  1295,  when  he  so  com- 
pletely satisfied  them  on  this,  as  he  had  done  on  other  occa- 
sions, that  he  was  elected  a  citizen  of  Florence. 

All  these  undertakings  being  completed,  the  Florentines 
resolved,  as  Giovanni  Villani  relates  in  his  History,  to  con- 
struct a  cathedral  church  in  their  city,  determining  to  give  it 
such  extent  and  magnificence  that  nothing  superior  or  more 
beautiful  should  remain  to  be  desired  from  the  power  or  in- 
dustry of  man.  Arnolfo  then  prepared  the  plans  and  executed 
the  model  of  that  temple,  which  can  never  be  sufficiently 
extolled,  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  directing  that 
the  external  walls  should  be  encrusted  with  polished  mar- 
bles, rich  cornices,  pilasters,  columns,  carved  foliage,  figures 

*  The  Italian  word  arche  in  the  original  text  means  sarcophagi,  not  arches, 
as  translated. 

«  Some  of  these  sarcophagi  are  now  in  the  court-yard  of  the  Riccardi  palace. 
These  antique  marble  coffins  were  used  as  sepulchres  during  the  middle  ages 
by  noble  Italian  families,  and  mediaeval  coats  of  arms  were  sculptured  on  the 
lids  above  the  Pagan  bas-reliefs.  It  was  the  arched  form  of  these  lids  which 
gave  the  sarcophagi  their  Italian  name  arche.  Boccaccio  refers  to  them  in  his 
story  of  Guido  Cavalcanti,  Decameron,  Gior.  FZ,  Nov.  9. 

10  Rumohr  will  only  admit  that  Arnolfo  incrusted  a  portion  of  the  exterior. 
According  to  Perkins  tliis  work  was  done  in  1292. 

11  Rather  to  tvall  Castelfranco  and  San  Giovanni.  Three  different  authori- 
ties give  the  date  of  walling  as  1398,  1300,  and  1296.  The  last  date  is  Giov. 
Villani's. 


18 


AENOLFO  DI  LAPO 


and  other  ornaments,  with  which  we  now  see  it  brought,  if 
not  entirely,  yet  in  a  great  measure  to  completion.  But 
what  was  most  of  all  wonderful  in  that  work,  was  the  fact, 
that  he  incorporated  the  church  of  Santa  Keparata,  besides 
other  small  churches  and  houses,  which  stood  around  it,  in 
his  edifice,  yet,  in  arranging  the  design  of  his  ground  plan 
(which  is  most  beautiful),  he  proceeded  with  so  much  care 
and  judgment,  making  the  excavations  wide  and  deep,  and 
filling  them  with  excellent  materials,  such  as  flint  and  lime, 
and  a  foundation  of  immense  stones,  that  they  have  proved 
equal,  as  we  still  see,  to  the  perfect  support  of  that  enor- 
mous construction,  the  cupola,  which  Filippo  di  Ser  Brunel- 
lesco  erected  upon  them,  and  which  Arnolfo  had  probably 
not  even  thought  of  placing  thereon  :  nay,  from  the  fame 
acquired  by  these  constructions,  the  place  is  still  called 
Lungo-i-Fondamenti." 

The  foundation  of  this  edifice  was  celebrated  with  much 
solemnity,  the  first  stone  being  laid  on  the  birthday  of  the 
Virgin,  in  the  year  1298,  by  the  Cardinal  legate  of  the  Pope, 
in  the  presence,  not  only  of  many  bishops  and  of  all  the  clergy, 
but  also  of  the  Podesta,  the  captains,  priors,  and  other  mag- 
istrates of  the  city,  together  with  the  whole  assembled  people 
of  Florence ;  the  church  receiving  the  name  of  "  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore/^  But  as  the  cost  of  this  fabric  was  ex- 
pected to  be  very  great,  as  it  was  indeed  found  to  be,  a  tax 
of  four  deniers  the  pound  was  levied  by  the  Chamber  of  the 
Commune  on  all  merchandize  exported  from  the  city,  to- 
gether with  a  poll-tax  of  tAvo  soldi  per  head,  the  Pope  and 
legate  also  granting  large  indulgences  to  whomsoever  should 
offer  contributions  towards  the  building.    Nor  must  I  omit 

1'  Arnolfo  is  said  to  have  worked  out  the  construction  as  regards  stability 
with  the  aid  of  curious  geometrical  combinations,  and  to  have  dug  a  series  of 
subterranean  wells  at  intervals  all  around  the  building  in  order  that  they 
might  emit  the  gases  generated  in  the  centre  of  the  earth  and  thus  lessen  the 
danger  of  e  irthquakes  !    See  Perkins'  Tuscan  Sculptors. 

^3  "  Beside  the  foundations." 

1*  The  name  of  the  Duomo,  "  Santa  Reparata,"  was  not  changed  to  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore  until  1413. 


AENOLFO  DI  LAPO 


19 


to  say,  that  in  addition  to  the  ample  foundations,  fifteen 
braccia  deep,  strong  buttresses  were  added  to  each  angle  of 
the  eight  sides,  and  from  these  supports  it  was  that  Brunel- 
lesco  derived  courage  to  lay  a  greater  weight  on  the  walls, 
perhaps,  than  that  Arnolfo  had  calculated  on.  The  two 
first  side  doors  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  were  commenced 
in  marble,  and  it  is  said  that  Arnolfo  caused  fig-leaves  to  be 
cut  in  the  frieze,  these  leaves  belonging  to  his  arms  and 
those  of  his  father  Lapo,^®  from  which  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  family  of  the  Lapi,  now  among  the  nobles  of  Flor- 
ence, descends  from  him.  Others  declare,  moreover,  that 
Filippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco  was  also  a  descendant  of  Arnolfo ; 
but  to  have  done  with  conjecture, — for  many  believe  the 
Lapi  family  to  come  from  Figaruolo,  a  castle  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Po, — let  us  return  to  our  Arnolfo,  of  whom  it 
may  be  affirmed,  that  for  the  grandeur  of  this  work,  he  has 
well  merited  infinite  praise  and  an  eternal  name.  The  walls 
of  the  building  were  almost  entirely  covered  externally  with 
marbles  of  various  colours,  and  within  with  Florentine  gran- 
ite, even  to  the  most  minute  corners  of  the  edifice. And 
that  all  may  know  the  exact  extent  of  this  marvellous  fabric, 
I  add  the  measurements.  Its  length,  from  the  door  to  the 
chapel  of  San  Zenobio,  is  260  braccia,  and  the  breadth  across 
the  transepts  166,  that  of  the  nave  and  side  aisles  66  ;  the 
height  of  the  central  nave  is  72  braccia,  that  of  the  side 
aisles  48 ;  the  external  circumference  is  1280  braccia ;  the 
height  of  the  cupola,  from  the  pavement  to  the  base  of  the 

15  A  braccio  may  be  usually  taken  as  23  inches,  but  the  unit  of  measure  varied 
according  to  the  part  of  Italy  where  it  was  used,  thus  in  Milan  the  hraccio  for 
cloth  was  39  inches,  while  in  Siena  it  was  only  14  inches.  The  nature  of  the 
material  sometimes  affected  the  measure,  for  example,  in  Parma  the  wool 
hraccio  was  25  -)-  inches,  while  for  silk  it  was  23  inches.  The  Florentine 
braccio  was  23  inches.— From  Mrs.  Foster's  Notes  to  the  Life  of  Taddeo 
Gaddi. 

•«  Lapo  was  not  Arnolfo's  father ;  see  note  1. 

1^  In  1397  the  Duomo  was  enlarged  by  Francesco  Talenti ;  he  heightened  the 
lateral  walls,  changed  in  part  their  external  decoration,  and  added  two  arches 
to  the  western  end  of  the  nave.  For  the  sculptors  who  worked  on  the /ayade, 
Bee  Perkins'  Historical  Handbook  of  Italian  Sculpture,  p.  389. 


20 


AENOLFO  DI  LAPO 


lantern  154  braccia  the  lantern  is  36  braccia  high,  exclu- 
sive of  the  ball,  which  is  four  braccia,  and  the  cross  eight, 
making  the  whole  height  of  the  cupola,  from  the  ground  to 
the  top  of  the  cross,  202  braccia.  Arnolfo,  being  now  con- 
sidered, as  he  was,  a  most  excellent  architect,  had  so  com- 
pletely acquired  the  confidence  of  the  Florentines,  that  no 
work  of  importance  was  undertaken  without  his  advice ; 
thus,  having  finished  in  that  same  year  the  foundations  of 
the  outer- wall  of  the  city,  which  he  had  commenced  as  above 
related,^  together  with  the  towers  of  the  gates,  all  of  which 
he  nearly  completed,  he  next  planned  and  commenced  the 
Palazzo  de^  Signori,^^  the  design  of  which  is  similar  to  that 
of  Oasentino,  built  by  his  father,  Lapo,  for  the  Counts  of 
Poppi.  But  however  grand  and  magnificent  the  design  of 
Arnolfo,  he  was  not  permitted  to  give  his  work  that  perfec- 
tion which  his  art  and  judgment  had  destined  for  it.  For 
it  had  chanced  that  the  houses  of  those  Gliibelline  rebels, 
the  Uberti,  who  had  roused  the  people  of  Florence  to  insur- 
es Measurements  of  the'Cathedral  vary  somewhat.  The  length  is  about  500 
feet,  width  of  the  nave  and  aisles  128  feet,  height  of  nave  153  feet,  and  from 
the  top  of  the  cross  to  the  pavement  387  feet. 

'0  The  magnificence  of  the  general  plan  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  was  thrown 
away  in  the  execution  of  the  details,  for  Arnolfo  calculated  that  greatness  of 
parts  would  add  to  the  greatness  of  the  whole,  whereas  the  adoption  of  only 
four  huge  nave  arches  where  a  northern  architect  would  have  used  many  more, 
dwarfs  the  effect  instead  of  enhancing  it,  and  the  empty  and  bare  appearance 
of  the  interior  is  increased  by  the  cold,  gray  colour  of  the  walls.  Nevertheless 
any  one  who  goes  frequently  into  the  cathedral  is  sure  to  feel  at  last  the  vast- 
ness  of  this  enormous  building,  while  upon  the  exterior  the  beauty  of  the  tri- 
apsidal  arrangement  must  strike  even  the  casual  observer.  As  to  the  interior, 
we  must  not  forget  that  the  architect  intended  it,  like  Santa  Croce,  to  be  fres- 
coed throughout  its  extent. 

Villani  speaks  of  ninety  towers,  including  those  of  the  gates.  Few  remain. 
The  gates  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Arno  have  been  half -razed  to  bear  the 
cannon  of  the  Medici.  The  Porta  San  Niccolo  in  Oltrarno  is  still  a  grand 
military  monument.  M.  Rohault  de  Fleury  {La  Toscane  au  moyen  age)  says 
the  Porta  San  Frediano  "possesses  all  the  elements  necessary  to  a  complete 
restoration." 

'1  The  corner-stone  was  laid  in  1298,  and  Arnolfo  still  passes  as  the  architect- 
founder.  ' '  He  built  the  old  palace  and  that  prodigious  tower  whose  weight  of 
nine  million  kilogrammes  rests  partly  upon  brackets "  {consoles).  See  Ro- 
hault  de  Fleury,  La  Toscane  au  moyen  age. 


AKNOLFO  DI  LAPO 


21 


rection,  had  been  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  site  of  them 
levelled  ;  nor  would  the  governor  of  that  day  permit  Arnolfo 
to  sink  the  foundations  of  his  edifice  on  the  ground  of  those 
rebel  Uberti,  notwithstanding  all  the  reasons  that  he  al- 
leged. Nay,  the  stupid  obstinacy  of  these  men  would  not 
even  suffer  him  to  place  his  building  on  the  square,  rather 
preferring  that  he  should  demolish  the  church  of  San  Piero 
Scheraggio,  of  which  the  north  aisle  was  taken  down  accord- 
ingly, than  permit  him  to  work  freely  in  the  midst  of  the 
space  before  him,  as  his  plans  required.  They  insisted,  more- 
over, that  the  tower  of  Foraboschi,  called  Torre  della 
Vacca,''  fifty  braccia  high,  which  was  used  for  the  great 
bell,  should  be  united  to  and  comprised  within  the  palace, 
together  with  certain  houses  purchased  by  the  commune  for 
this  edifice.  These  things  considered,  we  cannot  wonder  if 
the  foundations  of  the  palace  be  proved  awry  and  out  of 
square  ;  Arnolfo  having  been  compelled  to  bring  the  tower 
into  the  centre  of  the  building  :  and  in  order  to  strengthen 
the  latter  edifice,  he  was  obliged  to  surround  it  with  the 
walls  of  the  palace,  which  were  found  to  be  still  in  excellent 
preservation  on  being  examined,  in  1551,  by  the  painter  and 
architect,  Giorgio  Vasari,  when  he  restored  the  palace  by 
the  command  of  the  Duke  Cosmo.^  Arnolfo,  having  thus 
rendered  the  tower  secure  by  the  excellence  of  his  workman- 
ship, it  was  not  difficult  for  the  masters  who  succeeded  him 

2'  M.  Rohault  de  Fleury  denies  the  romantic  story  that  the  ground  plan  of 
the  Palazzo  Vecchio  was  irregular  because  Arnolfo  might  not  build  on  ground 
which  had  been  desecrated  by  Ghibelline  palaces.  He  affirms  that  the  obliquity 
of  the  southern  facade  was  caused  by  the  desire  to  respect  the  church  of  San 
Piero  Scheraggio  (afterwards  demolished).  A  Sienese  archaeologist,  Signer 
Romani,  has  discovered  the  foundations  of  the  tribune  and  part  of  the  walls 
of  this  church,  covered  by  modern  constructions. 

The  Duke  of  Athens  {circa  1338)  made  a  citadel  of  the  palace  and  flanked 
the  entrance  with  towers  (to  be  seen  in  a  fresco  at  the  StincJie).  These  were 
demolished,  and  later  Ghibelline  battlements  were  added  to  the  tower.  The 
Ringhiera,  a  great  platform  or  low  terrace  for  public  deliberations,  etc.,  ran 
along  the  north  and  west  sides ;  in  1563  the  northern  part  was  sacrificed  to 
Ammanati's  fountain  of  Neptune.  In  1813  the  architect  del  Rosso,  in  spite  of 
his  protests,  was  obliged  to  raze  the  remainder  of  the  Ii%7iyhiera. 


32 


ARNOLFO  DI  LAPO 


to  erect  upon  it  the  lofty  campanile  that  we  now  see  there^— 
he  not  having  been  able  to  do  more  in  the  remaining  two 
years  of  his  life  than  complete  the  palace,  which  has  since 
received,  from  time  to  time,  those  improvements  which  ren- 
der it  the  noble  and  majestic  edifice  we  now  behold. 

After  having  accomplished  all  these  things,  and  many 
others,  no  less  useful  than  beautiful,  Arnolfo  died,  in  the 
year  1300,^^  and  in  the  seventy-first  of  his  age  ;^  he  departed 
exactly  at  the  time  when  Griovanni  Villani  began  to  write 
the  Universal  History  of  his  own  times ;  and  since  he  not 
only  founded  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  but  also  erected  the 
apsis  with  the  three  principal  arches,  (those  under  the  cu- 
pola,) to  his  great  glory,  he  well  deserved  the  inscription  to 
his  memory  afterwards  placed  on  that  side  of  the  church 
which  is  opposite  to  the  campanile,  these  verses  were  en- 
graved on  marble  in  round  letters  : — 

"  Annis  millenis  centum  bis  octo  nogenis 
Venit  legatus  Roma  bonitate  dotatus 
Qui  lapidem  fixit  fundo  simiil  et  benedixit 
Prsesule  Francisco,  gestante  pontificatum 
Istud  ab  Arnolpho  *  templum  f uit  ledificatum 
Hoc  opus  insigne  decoraus  Florentia  digne. 
Reginse  coeli  construxit  moute  fideli 
Quam,  tu  Virgo  pia,  semper  defende,  Maria." 

We  have  thus  written  the  life  of  Arnolfo  as  briefly  as  possi- 
ble ;  and  if  his  works  are  far  from  approaching  the  perfection 
attained  in  our  day,  he  yet  well  deserves  to  be  held  in  grate- 
ful remembrance,  since,  being  himself  in  the  midst  of  so 
much  darkness,  he  yet  showed  to  those  who  came  after  him 
the  true  path  towards  perfection.^"*    The  portrait  of  Arnolfo, 

*  Arnulfo  in  the  Milanesi  edition. 
In  1310,  in  the  seventy-eighth  year  of  his  age. 

3a  Milanesi  quotes  from  the  necrology  of  Santa  Reparata  as  follows :  Ohiit 
magister  Arnolfus  de  V  opera  di  Sancta  Reparata.  MCCCX. 

26  Milanesi  uniting  the  word  bis  to  the  octo  nogenis  makes  the  foundation 
date  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  1296,  not  1298. 

2'  An  important  work  of  Arnolfo  is  the  monument  of  Cardinal  de  la  Braye 
(died  1290)  in  the  Church  of  San  Domenico  at  Orvieto. 


ARNOLFO  DI  LAPO 


23 


by  the  hand  of  Giotto,  may  be  seen  in  Santa  Croce,  beside 
the  principal  chapel ;  it  is  in  the  figure  of  one  or  two  men 
who  are  speaking  together  in  the  foreground  of  a  painting, 
which  represents  monks  lamenting  the  death  of  St.  Francis.^ 
In  the  chapter-house  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  a  painting  of 
the  cliurch  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  may  also  be  seen ;  it 
was  taken  from  the  model  in  wood  of  Arnolfo  by  Simon  of 
Siena,  and  represents  the  exterior,  together  with  the  cupola. 
From  this  painting,  it  is  obvious  that  Arnolfo  had  proposed 
to  raise  the  dome  immediately  over  the  piers  and  above  the 
first  cornice,  at  that  point,  namely,  where  Filippo  di  Ser 
Brunellesco,  desiring  to  render  the  building  less  heavy, 
interposed  the  whole  space  wherein  we  now  see  the  windows, 
before  adding  the  dome.  And  this  fact  would  be  even  more 
clearly  obvious,  if  the  model  of  Arnolfo  himself,  as  well  as 
those  of  Brunellesco,  and  others,  had  not  been  lost  by  the 
carelessness  of  the  persons  who  directed  the  works  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore  in  succeeding  years.® 

2«  This  work  is  lost. 

29  Of  Arnolfo' s  style  in  detail  we  know  little  or  nothing  ;  later  men  have  al- 
tered it  almost  completely.  But  his  conception  of  Florence  is  largely  that  of 
the  Florence  which  we  know  to-day  in  its  most  striking  features,  the  three 
great  semi-domes  that  raise  Brunelleschi's  cupola  upon  their  shoulders,  the 
soaring  tower  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  the  battlemented  walls  and  vast  mass 
of  Sauta  Cioce  are  all  his.  Symonds  points  out  that  even  the  Campanile 
of  Giotto,  Brunelleschi's  cupola,  and  the  Church  of  San  Michele  were 
"placed  where  he  had  planned."  As  a  name  he  stands  in  the  same  relation  to 
the  First  Renaissance  that  Brunelleschi  bears  to  the  Middle  and  Bramante  to 
the  High  Renaissance. 


( 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI.    THE  PISAN  ARCHI- 
TECTS AND  SCULPTORS. 


[  The  former  born  between  1205  and  1207 ;  died  1278.    The  latter  born  about 
1250 ;  died  later  than  1328.  ] 

Bibliography. — Under  the  heading  Bibliography  only  special  works  di- 
rectly referring  thereto  are  noted  with  special  lives.  Works  of  general  refer- 
ence, such  as  Miintz,  Histoire  de  Vart  pendant  la  Renaissance^  or  the  hand- 
books and  histories  of  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  Perkins,  Lafenestre, 
Mantz,  Symonds,  Milanesi,  Woltman,  and  others  are  not  mentioned  unless 
their  bearing  upon  the  life  in  question  makes  the  reference  especially  desir- 
able. The  following  works  are  among  those  which  may  be  consulted  concern- 
ing the  Pisani:  Gruner,  Marmoi'-BUdwerke  der  Schule  der  Pisaney\  1858. 
Perkins,  Tuscan  Sculptors,  1854.  Le  tre  porte  del  Battistero  di  Firenze^ 
1821.  Ruskin,  Val  D'Arno,  Oxford  Lectures  of  1873.  Ueher  den  Styl  Nic- 
colo  Pisanos  und  dessen  Uysprung,  Munich,  1873.  Massari  and  Vermiglioli, 
Le  SculUire  di  Niccolo  e  Giovanni  da  Pisa  e  di  Arnolfo  Jlorentino  cite 
ornano  lafontano  maggiore  di  Perugia,  Perugia,  1834.  Marchese  Virgilio 
Davia,  Memorie  Istor.  intorno  alV  Area  di  S.  Domenico^  1842.  Gebhart, 
Les  origines  de  la  Renaissance  en  Italic^  Paris,  1879.  Eugene  Miintz,  Les  Pre- 
curseurs  de  la  Renaissance,  Paris,  1882.  Marcel  Reymond,  La  Sculj>ture 
Florentine  anx  XIYrne  et  XYme  Slides,  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts^  1893-94. 
Arrhivio  Storico  delV  Arte  (Jan. -April,  1895).  Marcel  Reymond,  DAngelo 
che  suona  del  Bargello  e  la  Fontana  di  Perugia,  Arch  Stor.  delV  Arte.  VII, 
484-88.  Igino  Benvenuto  Supino,  Archivio  Storico  delV  Arte,  V.  66-94,  and 
again  in  the  same  work.  Vol.  I.  of  second  series,  Jan.-April,  1895,  p.  42. 
(Sig.  Supino  is  one  of  the  latest  and  most  enthusiastic  students  of  Giovanni 
Pisano. ) 

HAVING  treated  of  Design  and  Painting  in  the  life  of 
Cimabiie,  and  of  Arcliitectnre  in  that  of  Arnolfo 
Lapi,  T/e  will  now  consider  the  art  of  Sculpture  in 
the  lives  of  Niccola  and  Giovanni  of  Pisa,  and  also  the  most 
important  edifices  erected  by  these  artists.  Their  works, 
whether  in  sculpture  or  architecture,  are,  as  not  only  great 
and  magnificent,  but  thoroughly  expressed,  well  worthy  of 
commemoration,  they  having,  in  a  great  measure,  liberated 
both  these  branches  of  art  from  the  rude  and  tasteless  old 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


25 


Greek  manner,  and  having  displayed  much  greater  power  of 
invention  in  their  compositions,  as  well  as  more  grace  of  at- 
titude in  their  figures. 

Niccola  Pisano  ^  first  worked  under  certain  Greek  sculp- 
tors, who  were  executing  the  figures,  and  other  ornaments  in 
sculpture,  of  the  Duomo  of  Pisa  and  the  chapel  of  San  Gio- 
vanni :  among  the  many  spoils  of  marbles  brought  by  the 
armaments  of  Pisa  to  their  city,  were  several  antique  sar- 
cophagi, now  in  the  Campo  Santo  of  that  town  :  one  of 
these,  on  which  the  Chase  of  Meleager  and  the  Calydonian 
boar  was  cut  with  great  truth  and  beauty,  surpassed  all  the 
others  ;  the  nude,  as  well  as  draped  figures,  being  perfect  in 
design,  and  executed  with  great  skill. ^  This  sarcophagus 
having  been  placed,  for  its  beauty,  by  the  Pisans,  in  that 
faQade  of  the  cathedral  which  is  opposite  to  San  Rocco,  and 
beside  the  principal  door  of  that  front,  was  used  as  a  tomb 
for  the  mother  of  the  Countess  Matilda,  if  we  may  credit  the 
following  words,  inscribed  on  the  marble  : 

•*  A.  D.MCXVi.  Kal.  Aug.  obiit  D.  Matilda  felicis  memorise  comitis- 
sa,  quae  pro  anima  genitricis  siia3  D.  Beatricis  comitissse  venerabi- 
lis  in  hac  tumba  honorabili  quiescentis  in  multis  paitibns  mirifice 
banc  dotavit  ecclesiam,  quarum  animre  requiescant  in  pace. "  Then, 
A.  D.  Mcccnr  sub  dignissimo  operario  Biirgundio  Tadi  occasione 
graduum  fiendorum  per  ipsum  circa  ecclesiam  siipradicta  tumba 
superius  notata  trauslata  fuit,  nunc  de  sedibus  primis  in  ecclesiam, 
nunc  de  ecclesia  in  banc  locum,  ut  cernitis,  eccellentem.* 

Niccola  was  attracted  by  the  excellence  of  this  work, 
in  which  lie  greatly  delighted,  and  which  lie  studied  dili- 
gently, with  the  many  other  valuable  sculptures  of  the  relics 
around  him,  imitating  the  admirable  manner  of  these  works 

*  In  the  edition  of  Milanesi  the  first  line  reads  :  Anno  domini  XCXVL  IX 
Kal.  Aug  obiit  D.  Matilda,  etc.  The  sixth  line  reads  supradictam  instead  of 
siipradicta,  and  in  the  seventh  tunc  replaces  nwtc. 

>  Niccola  di  Pietro,  called  Niccola  Pisano. 

2  The  relief  represents  not  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian  boar,  but  Hippolytus 
and  Phaedra. 


26  NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


with  so  much  success,  that  no  long  time  had  elapsed  before 
he  was  esteemed  the  best  sculptor  of  his  time.  In  those  days, 
no  sculptor  of  great  eminence,  besides  Arnolfo,  existed  in 
Tuscany,  with  the  exception  of  Fuccio,  a  Florentine  archi- 
tect and  sculptor,  who  built  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra 
Arno,  in  Florence,  in  the  year  1229,  placing  his  name  over 
one  of  the  doors  of  the  building.  This  artist  also  executed 
the  tomb  of  the  Queen  of  Cyprus,  in  the  church  of  San  Fran- 
cesco at  Assisi,  a  monument  in  marble,  adorned  with  many 
figures,  and  particularly  with  the  portrait  of  the  queen  her- 
self, seated  on  a  lion,  to  typify  the  force  of  mind  of  this  prin- 
cess ;  who  left  large  sums  of  money,  at  her  death,  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  fabric.  But  Niccola,^  having  proved  himself 
a  much  better  master  than  Fuccio,  was  invited  to  Bologna 
in  the  year  1225,''  where  he  was  entrusted  with  the  execu- 
tion of  a  tomb,  in  marble,^  to  San  Domenico,  of  Calahor- 

3  There  is  documentary  confusion  regarding  Niccola's  birthplace.  Crowe 
and  Cavalcaselle,  Rumohr,  Grimm,  Salazaro,  Springer  and  others  believe 
him  to  have  been  a  native  of  southern  Italy  and  to  have  obtained  his  art 
education  in  the  south.  They  cite  certain  excellent  monuments  of  southern 
Italy,  in  support  of  their  opinion  that  Niccola  found  much  to  learn  there; 
the  dates  of  these  monuments,  however,  do  not  bear  out  their  theory.  Their 
most  important  citation  is  that  of  a  contract  made  for  the  pulpit  of  Siena 
{  May  11,  1266,)  in  which  he  is  mentioned  as  Master  Nicholas  son  of  Peter  of 
Apulia, 

Milanesi,  Perkins,  Muntz,  Schnaase,  and  others  hold  him  to  have  been  a 
Tuscan  ;  they  support  their  theory  upon  the  internal  evidence  of  his  works 
and  upon  a  document  in  the  archives  of  Sant  Jacopo  of  Pistoja  which  de- 
clares Niccola  to  have  been  the  Son  of  Peter  of  the  parish  of  San  Biagio  at 
Pisa," 

Milanesi  furthermore  points  out  the  fact  that  had  the  pulpit  contract  been 
intended  to  denominate  Niccola  as  a  native  of  the  province  of  Apulia  it  would 
have  followed  the  regular  formula,  de  partibus  Apuliae  "  and  that  as  no  such 
formula  is  used,  we  must,  by  the  word  Apulia,  understand  a  Tuscan  town, 
there  being  two  towns  by  the  name  of  Pulia,  Puglia,  or  Apulia  in  the  province 
of  Tuscany.  The  balance  of  probability  is  in  favor  of  this  solution. 
Probably  1265  or  1267,  as  St.  Dominick  was  not  canonized  until  1234. 

^The  sculptures  on  the  front  and  sides  are  probably  by  Niccola,  those  at 
the  back  by  Fra  Guglielmo  d'  Agnello.  (P.  Marchese  in  Milanesi's  notes,  1. 
297.)  The  area  of  S.  Domenico  is  described  in  detail  in  Marchese,  Painters, 
Sculptors  and  Architects  of  the  Dominican  Order,  English  Edition,  pp.  48-59. 
The  church  was  wholly  modernized  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Evidently  there  never  was  a  man  so  susceptible  to  present  influences  asNic- 


NICOOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


27 


ra/  founder  of  the  order  of  Preaching  Friars,  who  had  then 
but  recently  died.  Concerting  his  measures,  therefore,  with 
those  wlio  had  the  direction  of  the  matter,  Niccola  construct- 
ed the  tomb,  with  the  many  figures  still  to  be  seen  on  it,  fin- 
ishing the  whole  in  the  year  1231,'^  to  the  great  extension  of 
his  fame,  the  work  being  then  considered  one  of  extraordi- 
nary merit,  and  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  that  had 
been  seen.  He  also  prepared  plans  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
church^  and  of  the  greater  part  of  the  convent.  When  Nic- 
cola  returned  to  Tuscany,  he  found  that  Fuccio,  having  left 
Florence,  had  gone  to  Rome,  at  the  time  when  the  Emperor 
Frederick  was  crowned  by  Pope  Honorius,^  and  from  Rome 
to  Naples  with  that  monarch.  In  Naples,  Fuccio  completed 
the  Castel  Capuano,  now  called  the  Vicaria,  wherein  all  the- 
law-courts  of  the  kingdom  are  held.  He  also  finished  the 
Castel  deir  Uovo  ;  founded  the  towers,  and  built  the  gate, 
which  commands  the  Volturno,  for  the  city  of  Capua ;  laid 
out  a  chase,  for  the  sport  of  fowling,  near  Gravina  ;  and  a 
second,  for  hunting  in  winter,  at  Melfi  ;  besides  many  other 
labours,  which  are  omitted  for  the  sake  of  brevity.  Niccola, 
meanwhile,  remained  in  Florence,  occupied  not  only  in  sculpt- 
ure, but  with  architecture  also  ;  in  the  buildings  which  were 
then  in  course  of  construction,  and  hot  without  merit  of 
design,  in  all  parts  of  Italy,  but  particularly  in  Tuscany. 
He  gave  no  small  aid,  ai;  this  time,  towards  the  construction 

cola.  At  Pisa,  where  he  saw  the  antique,  he  not  only  educated  himself  upon 
it,  but  actually  copied  it,  while  at  Bologna,  where  no  old  marbles  met  his  eye, 
he  worked  with  the  greater  knowledge  which  he  owed  to  them,  "  thciiLjh  with 
no  dependence  upon  them."  (See  Perkins,  Historical  Handbook  of  Italian 
Sculpture,  p.  14.)  The  tomb  in  its  entirety  is  an  epitome  of  styles  of  sculpture 
from  the  thirteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century.  Niccolo  deir  Area  (1464), 
Michelangelo  (1494?),  Tribolo  and  others  have  in  turn  worked  upon  it. 

•  St.  Dominick.  '  See  note  4.  ^  San  Domenico. 

»  This  inscription  is  now  in  the  Bargello.  The  form  of  the  letters  proves  it 
to  be  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Milanesi  found  nothing  to  disprove  that 
Fuccio  may  have  restored  the  little  church  of  Santa  Maria  Sopr'  Arno  in  1300. 
He  may  not  have  been  the  architect,  however,  but  only  the  inspector  of  the  res- 
toration. The  Signory  of  Florence  gave  a  commission  to  restore  the  pave- 
ment of  the  bridge  of  the  Rubaconte,  (now  delle  Grazie)  to  a  certain  Fuccio 
d'  Amadore  in  1827.  _ 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


of  the  abbey  of  Settimo/°  which  had  not  received  its  com* 
pletion,  from  the  executors  of  Count  Ugo  of  Brandenburg, 
like  the  other  six  founded  by  the  same  noble,  as  mentioned 
above. For  although  we  find  engraved  on  the  campanile 
of  this  abbey  the  words  Guglielm  me  fecit/'  yet  we  know 
certainly,  from  its  style,  that  it  was  constructed  under  the 
direction  of  Niccola,  who  built  the  old  palace  of  the  Anziani, 
in  Pisa,^^  at  the  same  time.  This  latter  edifice  has  been  de- 
molished, in  our  own  days,  by  Duke  Cosmo,  for  the  purpose 
of  erecting  on  its  site,  while  retaining  a  portion  of  the  old 
building,  the  magnificent  palace  and  convent  of  the  new 
order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  Stephen,  built  after  the  plans 
and  models  of  the  Aretine  painter  and  architect,  Giorgio 
Vasari,  who  has  endeavoured  to  do  his  best  with  those  old 
walls,  accommodating  to  them,  as  much  as  possible,  the  new. 
Many  other  palaces  and  churches  were  constructed  in  Pisa 
by  Niccola,  who  was  the  first,  the  good  method  of  building 
having  been  lost,  to  found  buildings  at  Pisa  on  arches  raised 
upon  piers,  which,  in  their  turn,  were  supported  by  piles ; 
for,  where  this  was  not  practised,  the  whole  edifice  was  fre- 
quently ruined  by  the  sinking  of  the  foundations,  whereas 
the  piles  rendered  all  entirely  secure,  as  experience  fully 
demonstrates.  The  church  of  San  Michele  in  Borgo,^^  be- 
longing to  the  monks  of  Camaldoli,  was  also  built  by  Nic- 
cola  ;  but  his  most  ingenious,  most  beautiful,  and  most  ex- 
traordinary architectural  work,  was  the  campanile  of  San 
Niccola,  of  Pisa,  near  the  convent  of  the  Augustine  Friars. 
Externally  this  building  has  eight  sides,  but  its  form  within 
is  circular,  with  a  spiral  staircase  ascending  to  the  summit ; 
within  the  stairs  a  free  space  is  left,  in  the  manner  of  a  well, 
while  on  every  fourth  stair  are  placed  columns,  supporting 

10  No  records  exist  to  prove  this  assertion. 

11  There  is  nothing  to  prove  that  Ugo  founded  these  seven  abbeys. 

12  This  statement  can  neither  be  proved  nor  disproved  by  existing  documents. 

13  In  Pisa. 

14  Founded  1018,  enlarged  1219  and  1262,  finished  1304  by  Fra  Guglielmo  da 
Pisa,  scholar  of  Niccola.    See  Milanesi,  I.  299,  note  1. 

1^  There  is  no  proof  that  Niccola  built  this  campanile. 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


29 


arches,  which  follow  the  spiral  line.  The  roof  of  the  stair- 
case being  supported  on  these  arches,  the  ascent  is  of  such 
sort  that  the  spectator  at  the  foot  sees  all  who  go  up  ;  those 
who  are  ascending  see  those  remaining  below  ;  while  he  who 
stands  in  the  mid- way  can  see  both  those  above  and  those 
below.  This  remarkable  invention  was  afterwards  applied, 
with  many  improvements  of  proportion  and  richer  ornament, 
by  Bramante,  in  Rome,  to  the  Belvedere  of  Pope  Julius  II., 
and  by  Antonio  di  San  Gallo,  in  Orvieto,  for  Pope  Clement 
VII.,  as  will  be  related  in  the  proper  place.  But  to  return 
to  Niccola  :  he  was  no  less  excellent  in  sculpture  than  in 
architecture  ;  and  on  the  faQade  of  the  church  of  San  Mar- 
tino,  in  Lucca,  he  executed  a  Deposition  of  Christ  from  the 
Cross,  half-relief  in  marble,  which  is  full  of  admirable  fig- 
ures, finished  with  extreme  care,  the  marble  being  entirely 
perforated,  and  the  whole  completed  in  a  manner  which 
gave  hope,  to  those  who  were  previously  pursuing  this  art 
with  weary  steps,  that  a  master  was  now  about  to  arise,  from 
whose  aid  and  example  they  might  look  for  greater  facilities 
to  their  future  progress  than  had  yet  been  enjoyed.  This 
work  is  under  the  portico,  and  above  the  side-door,  on  the 
left  hand  of  him  who  enters  the  church.  In  the  year  1240,^^ 
the  plans  for  the  church  of  San  Jacopo  di  Pistoja  were  pre- 
pared by  Niccola,  who  employed  certain  Tuscan  artists  to 
decorate  the  apse  in  mosaic.  This  apse,  admired  in  those 
days  as  a  work  of  great  expense  and  difficulty,  awakens  more 
compassion  or  ridicule  than  admiration  in  our  own  times, 

'•According  to  M.  Miintz  in  A  travers  la  Toscane,  the  famous  leaning  tower 
is  not  by  Niccola  but  by  an  Italian,  Bonnannus,  and  William  of  Innspriick. 
Some  critics  also  add  Giovanni  Ennipontano,  a  German,  and  Thomas  of  Pisa. 

1'  In  the  architrave  below  this  work  is  an  Adoration  attributed  to  Giovanni 
Pisano.  The  sculptured  date  refers  not  to  the  Adoration,  but  to  the  building 
of  the  portico.  Milanesi,  I.  800,  note  1.  This  work  is  praised  by  Crowe  and 
Cavalcaselle  above  all  the  others  of  Niccola  and  Giovanni. 

i^n  1272. 

1*  Tolomei  gives  good  reasons  for  believing  that  only  portions  of  the  church 
belong  to  Niccola;  in  the  demolitions  of  1599  the  mosaics  disappeared. 

In  1272  (not  1240)  Niccola  undertook  to  restore  the  altar  of  this  church. 
See  Milanesi,  I.  300. 


30  NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 

and  the  rather  as  the  defects  then  prevailing  were  manifest 
not  in  Tuscany  only,  but  through  all  Italy,  where  many  build- 
ings and  other  works,  executed  without  design  or  method, 
because  of  the  little  knowledge  to  which  men  had  then  at- 
tained in  the  art  of  design,  serve  only  to  prove  the  poverty 
of  their  invention,  and  to  show  us  what  unmeasured  riches 
were  badly  expended  by  the  people  of  those  times,  for  lack 
of  masters  capable  of  worthily  executing  the  works  confided 
to  them. 

In  this  state  of  things,  Niccola  perpetually  increased  his 
fame  by  the  works  he  performed,  both  in  sculpture  and 
architecture,  acquiring  a  better  name  than  any  of  the  sculp- 
tors or  architects  then  working  in  Romagna ;  his  right  to 
which  may  be  seen  in  Sant'  Ippolito  and  San  Giovanni  of 
Faenza,  in  the  cathedral  of  Ravenna,  in  San  Francesco,  in 
the  houses  of  the  Traversari,  and  in  the  church  of  Porto,  as 
well  as  in  Rimini,  where  the  town-hall,  the  palaces  of  the 
Malatesta  family,  and  other  edifices,  are  all  in  a  much  ruder 
manner  than  the  old  buildings  erected  at  the  same  period 
in  Tuscany.  And  what  is  here  said  of  Romagna,  may  be 
affirmed  with  equal  truth  respecting  a  part  of  Lombardy.^ 
One  needs  only  to  examine  the  cathedral  of  Ferrara,  and 
such  other  buildings  as  were  erected  by  the  Marquis  Azzo, 
to  be  convinced  of  this  truth,  and  to  perceive  how  inferior 
these  attempts  are  to  the  Santo  of  Padua,  built  after  the 
designs  of  Niccola, — or  to  the  church  of  the  Frari  in  Venice, 
both  magnificent  and  deservedly  celebrated  works.  Many 
artists  of  Niccola's  day,  incited  by  a  laudable  ambition,  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  study  of  sculpture  with  more  zeal 

20  Most  of  these  buildings  mentioned  by  Vasari  have  been  ruined  or  altered. 

2>  The  church  of  Saint  Anthony  of  Padua  is  called  "7^  Santo,'"  There  is  no 
documentary  evidence  to  prove  that  Niccola  built  it. 

22  Though  we  have  no  documentary  proof,  Perkins,  in  his  "  Tuscan 
Sculptors,"  inclines  to  the  belief  that  Niccola  built  the  church  of  St. 
Anthony,  claiming  that  Niccola  Pisano  being  an  eclectic  was  pecul- 
iarly susceptible  to  the  new  impressions,  which  were  many  at  a  time 
when  architectural  ideas  were  in  a  chaotic  state.  Niccola  usually  amalga- 
mated several  styles,  so  that  the  successful  blending  of  them  in  the  Santo 
appears  to  be  a  corroboratiou  of  the  tradition  that  Niccola  was  the  archi- 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  TISA 


31 


than  they  had  previously  done,  more  particularly  in  Milan, 
where  many  Lombards  and  Germans  had  assembled  for  the 
construction  of  the  cathedral,  but  who  were  afterwards  dis- 
persed by  the  hostilities  that  arose  between  the  Milanese  and 
the  Emperor  Frederick,  when  these  artists  were  distributed 
over  all  Italy,  where  much  emulation  arising  among  them, 
they  produced  some  works  of  considerable  merit,  as  well 
ill  sculpture  as  architecture.  The  same  thing  occurred  in 
I^lorence,  after  the  works  of  Arnolfo  and  Niccola  had  ap- 
peared; the  latter,  while  the  little  church  of  the  Misericordia  ^ 
on  the  Piazza  of  San  Giovanni  was  in  progress  of  erection 
after  his  plans,  was  further  occupied  with  a  group  in  marble, 
representing  the  Virgin,  between  St.  Dominick,  and  another 
saint,  which  may  still  be  seen  on  the  fa9ade  of  the  church. 

It  was  in  the  time  of  Niccola  that  the  Florentines  began 
to  demolish  the  numerous  towers,  built  of  old,  in  a  most 
barbarous  style,  in  all  parts  of  the  city,  that  the  people 
might  suffer  less  in  the  contests  perpetually  arising  between 
the  Guelfs  and  Ghibelines,  or  perhaps  for  the  greater  secu- 
rity of  the  state  itself.  But  the  tower  called  Guardamorto, 
appeared  to  them  to  present  extreme  difficulty  in  its  demoli- 
tion, the  walls  being  of  such  thickness  that  they  would  not 
yield  to  the  pickaxe,  the  height  also  being  very  great.  This 
tower  stood  on  the  Piazza  San  Giovanni,  and  Niccola  cut 
through  one  of  its  sides  at  the  foot  of  the  building  and  sup- 
ported it  meanwhile  by  wooden  props,  of  a  braccio  and  a 
half  high  ;  to  these  supports  he  then  set  fire,  and  when  they 
were  consumed,  the  tower  fell  of  itself  into  almost  total 
ruin.^   This  was  considered  so  ingenious,  and  so  useful  a 

tect  of  this  church.  The  same  author,  however,  points  out  that  this  very 
combination  of  styles  weighs  against  his  having  been  the  architect  of  the 
church  of  the  Frari,  which  is  relatively  uniform  in  character. 

23  The  old  Misericordia,  now  a  part  of  the  Bigallo,  is  meant.  The  Madonna 
h^re  mentioned  is  by  Filippo  di  Cristofoi  o  (1413) ;  the  one  inside  the  oratory  ii 
by  Alberto  Amoldi.    See  Milanesi,  I.  302,  note  1. 

24  In  1248  the  Ghibellines  destroyed  thirty-six  Florentine  towers  and  desir- 
ing to  overwhelm  the  Baptistery,  the  headquarters  of  the  Guelphs,  they  or- 
dered Niccola  to  throw  down  Guardamorto^  which  stood  very  near  it.  '*  By 
special  miracle  of  St.  John,"  wrote  Villani,  "the  tower  fell  straight  across  the 


32 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


method,  that  it  has  since  become  in  a  manner  customary ; 
for  when  it  is  found  needful  to  destroy  an  edifice,  the  work 
is  readily  done  by  these  means.  Niccola  was  present  when 
the  first  foundation  of  the  cathedral  of  Siena  was  laid,  and 
drew  the  plan  of  the  church  of  San  Griovanni  in  the  same 
city.^  Having  then  returned  to  Florence,  in  the  same  year 
that  the  Guelfs  recovered  the  city,^^  he  there  designed  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  with  the  convent  of  the  Nuns 
of  Faenza,  since  destroyed  to  make  way  for  the  citadel.^  He 
was  then  recalled  to  Naples,  but  unwilling  to  abandon  his 
labours  in  Tuscany,  he  sent  thither  his  disciple,  Maglione,  in 
his  stead.  Maglione  was  a  sculptor  as  well  as  architect ;  he 
built  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  of  Naples,  in  the  time  of 
Conradin, — finished  a  part  of  the  Episcopal  Palace, — and 
erected  several  sepulchral  monuments, — works,  in  all  of 
which  he  closely  imitated  the  manner  of  his  master  Niccola. 

Niccola  was  meanwhile  invited  by  the  people  of  Volterra, 
in  the  year  1254,*  when  that  city  was  subjugated  by  the 
Florentines,  to  enlarge  their  cathedral,  which  was  very 
small ;  the  form  of  this  building  was  extremely  irregular, 
but  Niccola  rectified  that  fault,  and  greatly  increased  the 
magnificence  of  the  cathedral.^  He  then  returned  to  Pisa, 
and  constructed  the  marble  pulpit  of  San  Giovanni,^  to 
which  he  gave  the  utmost  diligence  and  attention,  desiring 
to  leave  to  his  country  a  memorial  of  himself  in  this  work, 
on  which,  among  other  subjects,  he  represented  the  Univer- 

piazza."   Niccola's  part  in  the  miracle  is  not  chronicled,  but  can  be  surmised. 
The  curious  name  of    Qiiardamorto^''  Death  watch,  came  from  the  Floren- 
tine custom  of  laying  the  dead  who  were  to  be  buried  near  the  Baptistery,  for 
a  certain  niunber  of  hours  in  a  chamber  of  this  tower. 
*  In  1357  according  to  Milanesi. 

'5  The  cathedral  of  Siena  was  founded  before  Niccola  was  born. 
"  In  1250. 

Niccola  died  in  1278  and  the  convent  was  not  founded  until  1281,  but  he  may 
have  built  Santa  Trinita  at  Florence.  This  church  has  just  been  elaborately 
restored  in  the  ancient  style. 

'8  No  testimony  exists  to  support  or  disprove  this  statement. 

This  pulpit  was  built  in  1260.  Symonds  remarks  that  the  Pisans  passed 
a  law  for  its  preservation,  and  guardians  were  appointed  for  it  as  in  the  time 
of  the  Greeks  the  Zeus  of  Pheidias  was  given  to  the  care  of  the  Phaidruntai. 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


33 


sal  Judgment,  composed  of  numerous  figures,  which,  if  not 
perfectly  well  designed,  are  at  least  executed  with  infinite 
care  and  patience,  as  may  still  be  seen.^  Then,  as  Niccola 
thought,  with  justice,  that  he  had  completed  a  meritorious 
work,  he  inscribed  beneath  it  the  following  verses  : 

"  Anno  milleno  bis  centum  bisque  triceno 
Hoc  opus  insigne  sculpsit  Nicola  Pisanus." 
[Laudetur  digne  tarn  bene  docta  manus.] 

The  people  of  Siena,  moved  by  the  fame  of  this  work,  which 
was  greatly  admired,  not  by  the  Pisans  only,  but  by  all  who 
beheld  it,  offered  Niccola  the  construction  of  that  pulpit  in 
their  cathedral  from  which  the  holy  Gospel  is  wont  to  be 
sung.^  On  this,  Niccola  represented  various  passages  from 
the  life  of  Christ,  redounding  greatly  to  his  honour,  espe- 
cially the  figures,  which,  with  great  difficulty,  he  has  well- 
nigh  detached  from  the  marble.^  This  was  executed  while 
Guglielmo  Mariscotti  was  Praetor.  The  designs  for  the 
church  and  convent  of  San  Domenico,  in  Arezzo,  were  also 
made  by  Niccola  for  the  Signori  of  Pietramala,  by  whom 
both  were  erected.^  At  the  entreaty  of  the  Bishop  Ubertini, 

*°  Acquainted  with  all  architectural  styles  and  troubled  .  .  .  by  no 
scruples  about  mingling  them  in  one  and  the  same  construction,  he  used 
Roman,  Mcdia3val,  and  Gothic  elements  to  enrich  it;  crowned  his  columns 
with  classic  capitals ;  rested  them  on  the  backs  of  lions,  as  in  the  church 
porches  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  filled  his  round  arches  with  pointed  details  ;  and 
set  up  statuettes  symbolic  of  the  Christian  virtues  wherever  he  thought  they 
would  produce  a  harmonious  whole. — C.  C.  Perkins,  Historical  Handbook  of 
Italian  Sculpture,  p.  12. 

31  This  line  omitted  by  Vasari  is  required  to  make  the  inscription  complete. — 
Foster's  Notes. 

3»  On  the  whole  the  pulpit  of  Siena  is  less  harmonious  than  that  of  Pisa. 
This  is  partly  owing  to  the  richly  ornamented  Renaissance  staircase,  which 
conflicts  in  style  with  the  older  parts.  Padre  della  Valle,  in  speaking  of  the 
Siena  pulpit,  says  :  "  The  first  Sienese  and  Florentine  sculptors  issued  from 
it  as  the  Greeks  from  the  Trojan  horse." 

These  sculptures  were  contracted  for  in  1266.  Arnolfo,  Lapo,  and  perhaps 
Giovanni  aided  Niccola.  Ranieii  d' Andrea  da  Perugia  was  Podesta  in  1266.— 
Milanesi,  I.  304,  note  2. 

»*  Mariscotti  was  Praetor  in  1268. — See  note  33. 

.»»  No  documeAts  remain  to  confirm  this  statement. 


34 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


he  restored  the  capitular  church  of  Cortona,  and  founded 
the  church  of  Santa  Margherita  for  the  friars  of  St.  Francis, 
on  the  most  elevated  point  of  that  city.^^ 

By  all  these  labours,  the  fame  of  Niccola  was  continually 
extended,  and  in  the  year  1267,*  he  was  invited  by  Pope 
Clement  IV.  to  Viterbo,  where,  with  many  others,  he  re- 
stored the  church  and  convent  of  the  Preaching  Friars. -^^ 
From  Viterbo  he  proceeded  to  Naples  to  King  Charles  I., 
who,  having  routed  and  slain  Conradin,  on  the  plain  of 
Tagliacozzo,  had  determined  to  erect  a  very  rich  church  and 
abbey  on  the  spot,  wherein  should  be  buried  the  great  num- 
ber of  men  killed  in  that  battle,  and  where  he  had  com- 
manded that  masses  for  their  souls  should  be  performed 
night  and  day,  by  many  monks.  And  in  respect  of  this 
building,  King  Charles  was  so  well  satisfied  with  the  work 
of  Niccola,  that  he  paid  the  artist  great  honours,  and  re- 
warded him  largely.^  Returning  from  Naples  into  Tuscany, 
Niccola  made  some  stay  at  Orvieto,  where  he  assisted  in  the 
building  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria.  He  there  worked 
in  company  with  certain  Germans,  and  executed  several  fig- 
ures in  high  relief,  with  their  assistance,  for  the  facade  of 
that  church.  There  were  two  historical  scenes  in  particu- 
lar, representing  the  Universal  Judgment,  Paradise,  and 
Hell ;  and  as  he  did  his  utmost  to  give  beauty  to  the  souls 
of  the  blessed  who  were  restored  to  their  bodies  in  Paradise, 
so,  in  the  figures  of  the  devils,  employed  in  tormenting  the 
souls  of  the  condemned  in  Hell,  he  produced  the  strangest 
forms  that  can  be  conceived.  In  this  work  he  surpassed 
not  only  the  Germans  with  whom  he  was  associated,  but 
even  himself,  to  his  great  glory ;  and  as  there  were  large 

*  In  the  Milanesi  edition  this  date  is  1257. 

36  The  churches  at  Arezzo  and  Cortona  designed  or  restored  by  Niccola  have 
been  modernized. 

3^  According  to  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  there  are  no  authentic  records 
of  Niccola' s  works  at  Viterbo  and  Naples.  Perkins  is  disposed  to  admit  that 
he  worked  there.  See  his  note  on  ViterbQ  and  Tagliacozzo,  Historical  Hand- 
book of  Italian  Sculpture,  p.  387. 

38  Only  rums  remain.    See  note  37. 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


35 


numbers  of  figures,  and  he  had  given  proof  of  extraordinary 
patience  in  this  production,  it  has  been  praised  even  to  our 
own  times  by  those  whose  judgment  in  sculpture  does  not 
extend  beyond  these  circumstances.^ 

Among  other  children,  Niccola  had  a  son  called  Giovanni, 
who,  being  constantly  with  his  father,  attained  early  pro- 
ficiency under  his  care,  both  in  sculpture  and  architecture, 
so  that  in  a  few  years  he  not  only  became  equal  to  his  in- 
structor, but  in  some  respects  surpassed  him ;  wherefore, 
becoming  old,  Niccola  retired  to  Pisa,  leaving  the  manage- 
ment of  all  their  labours  to  his  son.  Pope  Urban  IV.  ex- 
pired about  this  time  in  Perugia,  and  Giovanni  was  sum- 
moned to  that  city,  to  construct  the  sepulchral  monument 
of  that  pontiff.  This  work,  executed  in  marble,  was  demol- 
ished, together  with  the  tomb  of  Pope  Martin  IV.,  when 
the  people  of  Perugia  enlarged  their  cathedral,  so  that 
there  remain  now  but  a  few  relics,  scattered  over  different 
parts  of  the  church.  About  the  same  time,^  the  Perugians, 
profiting  by  the  skill  and  industry  of  a  Friar  of  the  Silves- 
trini,  had  conducted  an  abundant  water-course  into  their 
city,  by  means  of  leaden  pipes,  from  the  hill  of  Pacciano, 
two  miles  distant ;  they  now  therefore  confided  the  erection 
of  the  fountain  to  Giovanni  Pisano,'**  with  all  its  ornaments, 

»»  Giovanni  Pisano  may  have  worked  at  these  reliefs,  but  Niccola  was  no 
longer  living  at  the  time  of  their  execution. 
«o  In  1274. 

*'  Niccola  went  to  Perugia  to  design  a  fountain  for  the  piazza,  planned  it, 
then  returning  to  Pisa  made  there  the  statuettes  which  he  had  promised  for 
the  upper  basin  and  sent  them  to  Perugia  to  his  son  Giovanni,  who  remained 
tliere  to  superintend  the  work  and  sculpture  the  bas-reliefs  about  the  lower 
basin.  Rosso  executed  the  bronzes  of  the  third  and  upper  basin  in  1377,  and 
the  whole  fountain  was  finished  in  the  papacy  of  Nicholas  III.,  1277-1280.— 
See  M.  Muntz  and  also  C.  C.  Perkins  and  also  an  important  article  by 
M.  Marcel  Reymond,  Archivio  Storico  dell  Arte,  VII.,  484-488,  UAngelo 
che  suona,  del  Bargello,  e  la  Fontana  di  Perugia.  M.  Reymond  considers 
this  fountain  the  most  important  example  of  the  evolution  eflfected  in  sculpt- 
ure from  the  time  of  the  pulpits  of  Niccola,  circa  1260,  to  that  of  the  pulpits 
of  Giovanni,  circa  1310.  He  finds  that  in  the  tomb  of  la  Braye  at  Orvieto,  by 
Arnolfo,  in  the  Fuor  civitas  pulpit  of  Pistoja  by  Fra  Guglielmo,  above  all  in 
the  Perugian  fountain,  the  majesty  and  loftiness  of  Niccola  become  human- 


36 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


whether  in  marble  or  bronze.  Giovanni  therefore  com- 
menced the  work,  and  constructed  a  range  with  thre^ 
basins,  placed  one  above  the  other ;  the  first  is  of  marble, 
raised  on  twelve  steps,  each  having  twelve  sides  ;^  the 
second,  also  of  marble,  reposes  on  columns,  rising  from  the 
centre  of  the  first ;  and  the  third,  which  is  of  bronze,  is 
supported  on  three  figures,  and  has  griffins,  also  of  bronze, 
in  the  midst  of  it,  which  pour  the  water  forth  on  all  sides. 
Then,  as  Giovanni  considered  himself  to  have  worked  suc- 
cessfully in  this  fountain,  he  inscribed  his  name  upon  it.^^ 
About  the  year  1560,  as  the  arches  and  conduits  of  the 
aqueduct,  which  had  cost  seventy  thousand  gold  ducats, 
had  become  much  injured, — nay,  were  in  a  great  part 
ruined, — Vincenzio  Danti,  a  sculptor  and  architect  of 
Perugia,  did  himself  no  small  credit  by  most  ingeniously 
reconducting  the  water  to  the  said  fountain  in  its  original 
course,  yet  without  rebuilding  the  arches,  which  would 
have  been  an  excessively  costly  work.^ 

This  undertaking  being  completed,  Giovanni  resolved  to 
leave  Perugia  and  return  to  Pisa,  being  desirous  of  seeing 
his  father,  now  become  old,  and  also  indisposed  ;  but,  pass- 
ing through  Florence,  he  was  compelled  to  delay  some  time 
there  for  the  purpose  of  assisting,  with  other  architects,  at 
the  mills  on  the  river  Arno,  which  were  then  in  course  of 
construction,  at  San  Gregorio,  near  the  Piazza  de'  Mozzi.  At 
length,  having  received  intelligence  of  his  father^s  death,^  he 

ized  and  tender,  before  passing  onward  to  the  poignancy  and  even  violence  of 
Giovanni  Pisano's  later  style.  M.  Reymond  considers  the  statuettes  of  the 
upper  basin  as  a  product  of  Niccola's  last  manner,  and  sees  in  them  also  evi- 
dence of  Giovanni's  assistance,  while  he  accredits  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  lower 
basin  to  Giovanni  and  Arnolfo  di  Lapo.  He  gives  a  full  list  of  the  subjects 
of  both  reliefs  and  statuettes,  and  he  considers  this  fountain  the  point  of  de- 
parture of  Andrea  Pisano  and  the  Florentine  school  of  sculpture. 
^2  Twenty-five  sides  rather. 

^3  The  fountain  is  more  interesting  in  detail  than  as  a  whole  ;  the  later  por- 
tions towards  the  top  being  somewhat  unimportant  in  relation  to  tiie  massive- 
ness  of  the  general  effect. 

Schorn  notes  a  restoration  of  these  ornaments, 

« In  1277. 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


37 


departed  for  Pisa,  where,  in  consideration  of  his  talents,  he 
was  received  with  great  honour  by  all  the  city,  every  one  re- 
joicing that,  although  Niccola  had  passed  away,  yet  Giovanni 
remained  to  them,  the  heir  to  his  virtues,  as  well  as  to  his 
abilities.  Nor  were  the  Pisans  disappointed  in  their  expec- 
tations when  the  occasion  for  putting  them  to  the  proof  pre- 
sented itself  ;  for,  resolving  to  make  certain  changes  in  the 
small,  but  richly-adorned  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Spina, 
the  charge  of  these  was  entrusted  to  Giovanni,  who,  with  the 
aid  of  his  disciples,  brought  the  decorations  of  that  oratory 
to  the  perfection  which  we  still  see.^^  This  work,  so  far  as  we 
can  judge  of  it,  must  have  been  considered  wonderful  in  those 
times,  and  the  rather  as,  in  one  of  the  figures,  Giovanni  had 
produced  the  portrait  of  his  father,  in  the  best  manner  that 
he  could  accomplish.'*^ 

The  people  of  Pisa,  seeing  the  success  of  Giovanni  in  this 
work,  and  having  long  thought — nay,  even  spoken — of 
making  a  general  burying-ground  for  the  noble,  as  well 
as  the  plebeian  classes  of  their  city,  that  too  many  might 
not  be  laid  in  the  cathedral,  or  from  some  other  cause, 
resolved  to  confide  to  Giovanni  the  construction  of  the 
Oampo  Santo, '^^  which  is  situate  on  the  piazza  of  the  Duomo, 
towards  the  walls  ;  this  he  completed  from  good  plans  and 
with  great  judgment,  giving  it  that  extent,  and  enriching  it 
with  those  ornaments,  which  we  now  see  ;  and  as  the  cost  of 
this  work  was  not  restricted,  he  caused  the  roof  to  be  covered 

"  The  church  was  not  begun  until  1323,  or  towards  the  end  of  Giovanni's  life. 
See  Schultz,  Denkmaler  der  kunst  in  Unter  Italien,  VII.  p.  5,  note  3. 

In  the  life  of  Andrea  Pisano,  Vasari  states  that  in  the  sculptures  of  the 
church  of  La  Spina,  Nino  made  a  portrait  of  his  father. 

The  Campo  Santo  was  built  1278-83.  The  sacred  earth  brought  from  Je- 
rusalem by  the  Pisans  in  fifty  galleys  made  this  building  impressive  among 
all  burial-places  to  the  mediaeval  imagination.  The  simplicity  of  the  lines  of 
the  building,  its  beamed  roof,  long  perspective,  and  lovely  windows  of  Gio- 
vanni Pisano,  through  which  the  sunlight  streams  and  the  green  turf  is  seen, 
made  it  very  beautiful,  and  the  vastest  series  of  frescoes  in  Italy  made  it  a 
place  of  art  pilgrimage.  Though  it  is  no  such  Pantheon  of  the  great  as  Santa 
Croce  or  Westminster,  it  is  one  of  the  strangest  and  most  famous  mausoleums 
in  the  world. 


38 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


with  lead.  The  following  inscription,  graven  on  marble, 
was  placed  on  the  principal  door  : 

A.  D.  MOOLXxvin,*  tempore  Domini  Friderigi  archiepiscopi 
Pisani,  et  Domini  Tarlati  potestatis,  operario  Orlando  Sardella, 
Johanne  Magistro  sedificante. 

This  undertaking  being  completed,  Giovanni  went,  in  the 
same  year  ISSS,"*^  to  Naples,  where  he  built  the  Castel  Nuovo 
for  Charles  I.^  To  give  space  for  this  erection,  and  for  the 
necessary  defences,  he  was  compelled  to  demolish  several 
houses,  and  particularly  a  convent  of  the  friars  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, which  was  afterwards  reconstructed  on  a  larger  scale,  and 
with  increased  magnificence,  near  the  castle,  receiving  the 
name  of  Santa  Maria  ^'  della  Nuova.^^  When  these  buildings 
had  been  commenced,  and  had  made  a  certain  degree  of  prog- 
ress, Giovanni  left  Naples  to  return  into  Tuscany;  but,  hav- 
ing reached  Siena, he  was  not  suffered  to  go  farther,  being 
called  on  to  give  a  plan  for  the  fa9ade  of  the  cathedral  ^  of 
that  city,  which  was  then  constructed,  after  that  model,  with 
extreme  splendour  and  magnificence.^  In  the  year  1286,  the 
people  of  Arezzo  were  building  their  cathedral,  from  the 
designs  of  Margaritone,  an  architect  of  that  city,  when  Gio- 
vanni was  summoned  thither  from  Siena,  by  Guglielmino, 
Bishop  of  Arezzo,  for  whom  he  executed  the  table  of  the 

*  This  date  should  read  MCCLXXXViii. 

<9ln  1388 ;  Perkins  considers  this  journey  doubtful. 

6"  Milanesi  believes  that  the  interior  of  the  Castel  Nuovo  is  meant. 

61  This  church  of  S.  M.  Nuova  is  attributed  to  Giovanni  Pisano. 

"  In  1389. 

*3  Not  one  of  Niccola's  purely  architectural  works  is  authenticated  by  docu- 
ment, though  we  constantly  hear  of  him  as  a  consulting  architect ;  but  Gio- 
^  vanni  Pisano  is  identified  with  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa,  the  completion  of  the 
cathedral  of  Prato,  and,  according  to  M.  Muntz,  A  travers  la  Toscane,  with 
ihefagade  of  the  cathedral  of  Siena. 

5*  Giovanni  could  not  have  been  present  at  the  foundation  of  the  Sienese 
cathedral,  though  he  might  perhaps  have  designed  the  baptistery.  Giovanni 
may  have  worked  on  the  facade  of  the  Duomo  of  Siena  at  different  dates  ;  his 
name  appears  on  the  registers  in  1384-90-95-99.  See  Milanesi,  quoted  by 
Perkins  in  Historical  Handbook  of  Italian  Sculpture,  p.  30. 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


39 


high  altar,  in  marble. In  the  same  church,  Giovanni  con- 
structed the  chapel  of  the  Ubertini,  a  most  illustrious  fam- 
ily, still  possessing  several  lordships,  but  formerly  the  masters 
of  many  more.  This  he  likewise  enriched  with  numerous 
decorations  in  marble  ;  but  these  have  been  covered  over  by 
various  ornaments  in  stone,  erected  on  that  site,  by  Giorgio 
Vasari,  in  the  year  1535,  for  the  support  of  an  organ,  of 
extraordinary  beauty  and  excellence,  which  has  been  placed 
in  that  chapel. 

Giovanni  Pisano  also  gave  the  designs  for  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  de'  Servi,  which  has  been  destroyed,  with  many 
palaces  belonging  to  the  noblest  families  of  the  city,  for  the 
causes  before  mentioned.  And  here  I  will  not  omit  to  note 
that  Giovanni  employed  the  services  of  certain  Germans  for 
the  altar  above  described,  who  assisted  him,  more  in  the 
hope  of  improvement  than  for  gain  ;  these  artists  became 
so  expert  under  his  instructions,  that,  having  departed  to 
Rome  on  the  completion  of  the  work,  they  were  employed 
in  many  of  the  sculptures  of  St.  Peter's  by  Boniface  VIII. , 
as  well  as  in  architecture,  when  that  pontiff  was  building 
Civita  Castellana.  They  were,  besides,  despatched  by  the 
same  pope  to  Santa  Maria  d'Orvieto,  where  they  executed 
many  figures,  in  marble,  for  the  facade  of  that  church, 
whicli  were  tolerably  well  done  for  those  times.  But 
among  those  who  assisted  Giovanni  Pisano  in  the  works  of 
the  cathedral  of  Arezzo,  Agostino  and  Agnolo,  sculptors 
and  architects  of  Siena,  were  the  most  distinguished,  and 
far  surpassed  all  others.  We  now  return  to  Giovanni,  who 
repaired  to  Florence  on  leaving  Orvieto,  partly  to  view  the 
building  then  constructing  by  Arnolfo  (Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore),  but  also  to  visit  Giotto,  of  whom  he  had  heard 
great  things  related  while  on  his  travels.  But  he  had 
scarcely  arrived  in  Florence,  before  he  was  appointed,  by 
the  Intendants  of  the  fabric,  to  execute  the  Madonna,  which 

«  The  altar  of  San  Donate  is  not  by  G.  Pisano,  but  by  Giov.  di  Francesco 
d'  Arezzo  and  Betto  di  Francesco  da  Firenze.  See  Milanesi,  I.  311.  A  passage 
describing  this  altar  is  here  omitted. 


40 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


stands  between  two  angels,  over  that  door  of  the  church 
which  leads  into  the  canonical  palace  ;  a  work  which  was 
then  greatly  commended.  He  afterwards  erected  the  small 
baptismal  font  of  San  Giovanni,  adorning  it  with  passages 
from  the  life  of  that  saint,  in  mezzo-rilievo.^'  Then,  pro- 
ceeding to  Bologna,  he  directed  the  construction  of  the 
principal  chapel  in  the  church  of  San  Domenico,  where  he 
was  also  commissioned,  by  Teodorico  Borgognoni,  of  Lucca, 
the  Bishop,  a  friar  of  the  Dominican  order,  to  execute  an 
altar  in  marble ;  and  in  the  year  1298  he  completed  the 
marble  table  in  which  are  seen  the  Virgin  with  eight  other 
figures,  all  of  very  tolerable  workmanship.^^ 

In  the  year  1300,^^  Niccola  da  Prato,  cardinal  legate, 
being  despatched  by  the  pope  to  Florence,  in  the  hope  of 
appeasing  the  dissensions  of  the  Florentines,  employed 
Giovanni  to  build  a  convent  for  nuns  in  Prato,^  which  he 
caused  to  be  called  the  Convent  of  San  Niccola,  after  his 
own  name  ;  in  the  same  district  he  restored  the  convent  of 
San  Domenico,^^  with  another  of  the  same  name  in  Pistoja, 
and  on  both  these  buildings  the  arms  of  the  aforesaid  car- 
dinal may  still  be  found.  Then  the  people  of  Pistoja, 
holding  the  name  of  Niccola,  the  father  of  Giovanni,  in 
high  respect,  for  the  many  excellent  works  that  he  had 
produced  in  their  city,  caused  Giovanni  to  construct  a 
marble  pulpit  for  their  church  of  Sant*  Andrea,  similar  to 
that  which  Niccola  had  executed  for  the  cathedral  of  Siena, 
and  in  which  he  was  to  compete  with  one  erected  shortly 
before  by  a  German,  in  the  church  of  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, which  had  been  highly  praised.®^  This  work  Giovan- 

6«  This  work  is  still  in  situ. 

67  The  present  font  bears  the  date  of  1370,  at  which  time  Giovanni  had  been 
dead  forty-two,  and  Andrea  twenty  years. 

6«  This  work  is  lost.  ^9  More  probably  in  1303.  «<>  In  1317-20. 

«•  As  the  convent  remained  unfinished  until  1322  it  could  hardly  have  been 
restored. 

This  latter  pulpit  of  San  Giovanni  Fuor  civitas  is  now  generally  accred- 
ited not  to  a  German,  but  to  Fra  Guglielmo  of  Pisa,  1270. 

The  pulpit  of  Sant'  Andrea  is  one  of  Giovanni  Pisano's  most  famous  works  ; 


NIOCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


41 


ni  completed  in  four  years,  representing  passages  from  the 
life  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  five  compartments,  on  five  of  its 
sides,  with  a  Universal  Judgment  on  the  sixth,  giving  his 
utmost  care  to  the  execution,  in  the  hope  of  equalling,  or 
perhaps  of  surpassing,  that  of  Orvieto,  then  so  much 
lauded.  And  as  it  appeared  to  him  that  he  had  produced 
'  a  great  and  beautiful  work,  which  was  true,  the  age  con- 
sidered, he  inscribed  the  following  verses  around  the  pulpit, 
above  the  columns  supporting  it,  on  the  architrave  : — 

"  Hoc  opus  sculpsit  Joannes,  qui  res  non  egit  inanes 
Nicolai*  natus    .    .    .   meliora  beatus. 
Quern  genuit  Pisa,  doctum  suiter  omnia  visa.*' 

About  the  same  time,^^  and  in  the  same  city,  Giovanni 
constructed  the  holy  water  font  for  the  church  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist.  This  is  in  marble,  supported  by  three  figures — 
Temperance,  Prudence,  and  Justice — and  the  work  being 
then  considered  very  beautiful,  was  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  church  as  sometliing  remarkable.  Moreover,  before  he 
departed  from  Pistoja,  Giovanni  gave  the  plans  for  the  cam- 
panile of  St.  Jacopo,  the  principal  church  of  that  city, 
although  the  church  itself  had  not  then  been  commenced. 
This  tower,  which  stands  on  the  Piazza  di  San  Jacopo,  and 
beside  the  church,  bears  the  date  1301.^ 

Pope  Benedict  IX. dying  soon  after  this  in  Perugia,  Gio- 
vanni Pisano  was  invited  to  that  city,  where  he  constructed 
a  marble  tomb  for  the  lately  departed  pontiff,  in  the  old 
church  of  San  Domenico  of  the  Preaching  Friars.  The 

for  illustrations  and  long  description  see  M.  Henri  Belle,  Les  Pelites  villes  et 
le  grand  art  en  Toscane^  in  Le  Tour  du  Monde,  XXXVIII.  liv.  980,  pp.  345- 
240.  Pistoja  is  par  excellence  the  city  of  pulpits,  and  those  of  the  churches 
of  Groppolo,  San  Bartolomraeo,  San  Giovanni  Fuor  civitas,  and  Sant'  Andrea 
mark  four  distinct  and  successive  steps  in  advance. 

*  In  the  second  line  of  this  inscription,  which  was  carelessly  copied  by  Vasari 
and  bears  the  date  1300 ;  the  Milanesi  edition  gives  Mcoli  for  Nicolai. 

«3ln  1300. 

«<  Tolomei  says  that  this  date  is  not  1301  but  1300,  the  date  of  the  beginning 
of  the  building.    Giovanni  probably  restored  and  embellished  the  latter. 
Benedict  XI.,  who  died  in  1304.    The  tomb  was  executed  in  1305-1306. 


42  NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 

figure  of  Pope  Benedict,  taken  from  nature,  and  in  his 
pontifical  habits,  is  extended  on  the  sarcophagus,  between 
two  angels,  which  support  a  canopy ;  the  Virgin  stands 
above,  with  a  saint  on  each  side  of  her  ;  many  other  orna- 
ments also,  in  marble,  are  cut  around  the  monument.  In 
the  new  church  of  the  preaching  Friars,  Giovanni  likewise 
erected  a  tomb,  that  of  Messer  Niccolo  Guidalotti,  bishop  of 
Recanati,  a  native  of  Perugia,  who  was  founder  of  the  new 
college,  called  the  Sapienza,  in  that  city.^  In  this  same 
new  church,  which  had  been  founded  by  others,  it  may  be 
further  remarked,  that  Giovanni  directed  the  works  of  the 
central  nave,  and  this  part  of  the  building  was  much  more 
securely  built  than  the  remainder  of  the  church,  which  has 
sunk  on  one  side  from  the  defects  of  its  foundations,  and 
now,  from  having  been  so  insecurely  based,  is  in  danger  of 
ruin.  And,  of  a  truth,  whoever  undertakes  a  building,  or 
other  work  of  importance,  should  seek  advice  from  the  best 
informed,  and  not  from  those  who  know  but  little,  lest, 
when  all  is  done,  he  should  have  to  repent,  with  shame  and 
loss,  of  having  been  ill  directed  where  most  he  needed  coun- 
sel. 

Having  completed  his  labours  in  Perugia,  Giovanni  re- 
solved to  proceed  to  Rome,^'  that  he  might  profit,  as  his 
father  had  done,  by  the  study  of  the  few  antiquities  then  to 
be  seen  there  ;  but  being  prevented  by  good  reasons,  he 
refrained  from  carrying  this  resolution  into  effect,  and  the 
rather  as  he  heard  that  the  Papal  Court  had  just  gone  to 
Avignon.  He  returned,  therefore,  to  Pisa,  where  Nello  di 
Giovanni  Falconi,  master  of  the  Duomo,  commissioned  him 
to  build  the  principal  pulpit  of  the  cathedral, — that  fixed  to 
the  choir,  namely,  on  the  right  hand  of  the  spectator  as  he 
approaches  the  high  altar.  ^    Having  commenced  this  work. 

According  to  Mariotti's  Lettere  Perugine,  quoted  by  Milanesi,  this  bishop, 
named  Benedetto,  postdated  Giovanni  by  about  a  century. 

«T  This  may  rather  refer  to  the  incidental  studies  of  Niccola  in  later  life ; 
his  youth  was  probably  passed  in  Tuscany. 

6«Thi8  pulpit  was  finished  by  Giovanni  in  1311,  and  was  perhaps  his  most 
important  work.    Irijured  by  the  great  fire  of  1595  (see  curious  description 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA  43 


and  the  many  figures,  in  full  relief,  three  braccia  high, 
which  were  to  serve  for  its  decoration,  he  brought  it,  by 
slow  degrees,  to  the  form  it  now  bears.  This  pulpit  is  based 
partly  upon  the  above-mentioned  figures,  partly  on  columns 
supported  by  lions  ;  on  the  sides  are  represented  certain 
passages  from  the  life  of  Jesus.  It  is  truly  deplorable  that 
so  much  care,  industry,  and  cost,  were  not  accompanied  by 
some  merit  of  design  ;  that  it  should  fall  so  far  short  of 
perfection  as  to  have  neither  invention,  nor  grace,  nor  any 
approach  to  good  style,  such  as  would  be  assured,  in  our 
times,  to  works  of  much  less  expense  and  labour.  It 
awakened  no  little  admiration,  nevertheless,  in  the  men 
of  those  times,  accustomed  to  see  only  the  rudest  attempts. 
This  work  was  finished  in  the  year  1320,^^  as  appears  from 

from  a  codex  quoted  in  Arch.  Stor.  delV  Arte,  V.  66-94)  the  pulpit  was  taken 
to  pieces,  certain  fragments  being  placed  in  the  Campo  Santo,  the  six  bas-re- 
liefs remaining  in  the  cathedral,  the  lions  and  other  portions  being  built  into 
the  modernised  pulpit.  It  is  intended  that  the  fragments  shall  all  be  gathered 
together  into  a  careful  reconstruction  of  Giovanni's  pulpit  to  occupy  its  orig- 
inal place. 

Late  critics  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  general  plan  of  this  important  work 
of  Giovanni  has  been  misunderstood,  and  that  fragments  have  been  at- 
tributed to  it  which  never  belonged  to  it.  Signor  Igino  Benvenuto  Supino, 
the  latest  and  most  enthusiastic  student  of  Giovanni,  asserts  that  only  the 
bas-reliefs,  the  two  lions,  and  the  figures  of  the  central  support  representing 
the  Liberal  Arts,  are  by  Giovanni. 

He  believes  the  other  figures  to  be  greatly  inferior,  and  accredits  them— 
the  four  Evangelists,  at  least — to  Tino  da  Camaino.  He  shows  that  the 
tomb  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.  was  partially  dismantled  in  1404,  and  re- 
moved from  its  place,  and  claims  that  the  inferior  figures  attributed  to  Gio- 
vanni originally  formed  part  of  this  tomb.  Sig.  Supino  affirms  also  that 
the  figures  over  the  door  of  the  Campo  Santo  are  not  by  Giovanni,  but  that 
the  Virgin  above  the  Baptistery  door  is  one  of  his  finest  works.  In  the  vari- 
ous proposed  reconstructions  (on  paper)  of  the  Pisano  pulpit,  Sig.  Supino  finds 
especial  fault  with  the  arrangement  of  the  staircase,  declaring  that  it  can  in 
nowise  resemble  the  original.  See  pages  65-68,  Arch.  Stor.,  Vol.  I.,  new  series. 
1895. 

«»  An  inscription  bears  the  date  1511. 

There  is  in  the  sacristy  of  the  Duomo  of  Pisa  an  ivory  Madonna  by  Gio- 
vanni Pisano.  Another  Madonna,  once  on  a  pinnacle  of  the  church  of  the 
Spina  and  attributed  to  Giovanni  Pisano,  by  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Caval- 
caselle,  has  been  taken  to  the  Campo  Santo  and  is  now  attributed  to  Andrea 
Pisano.    See  Sig.  Igino  Benvenuto  Supino,  Arch.  Stor.  VI. ,  1893,  p.  326. 


44 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


certain  verses  engraved  around  the  said  pulpit,  and  which 
proceed  thus  : — 

"  Laudo  Deum  verum,  per  quern  sunt  optima  renim 
Qui  dedit  has  puras  homini  formare  figuras ; 
Hoc  opus  his  annis  Domini  sculpsere  Johannis 
Arte  manus  sola  *  quondam  natique  Nicole 
Cursis  undenis  tercentum  milleque  plenis." 

There  are,  besides,  thirteen  other  lines  which  I  do  not  give 
here,  that  the  reader  may  be  the  less  wearied,  and  likewise 
because  these  suffice  to  show,  not  only  that  this  pulpit  is 
from  the  hand  of  Giovanni,  but  also  that  the  men  of  those 
times  were  uniform  in  their  shortcomings.  A  Virgin  in 
marble,  placed  over  the  principal  door  of  the  Duomo,  between 
the  figures  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  another  saint,  is  also 
by  Giovanni  Pisano,  and  the  figure  kneeling  at  the  feet  of  the 
Virgin  is  said  to  represent  Pietro  Gambacorti,  master  of  the 
works.  However  this  may  be,  on  the  pedestal  of  the  Virgin 
are  engraved  the  following  words : — 

"  Sub  Petri  cura  hsec  pia  fuit  sculpta  figura 
Nicoli  nato  sculptore  Johanne  vocato." 

In  like  manner,  over  the  side  door,  opposite  to  the  cam- 
panile, stands  a  Virgin  in  marble,  from  the  hand  of  Gio- 
vanni ;  on  one  side  of  her  there  is  a  woman  kneeling,  with 
two  children.  This  group  represents  Pisa.'^^  On  the  other 
side  of  the  Madonna  is  the  Emperor  Henry.  On  the  pedestal 
of  the  Virgin  are  the  words — "^'Ave  gratia  plena,  Dominus 
tecum     and  near  them  the  following  verses : — 

"Nobilis  arte  manus  sculpsit  Johannes  Pisanus. 
Sculpsit  sub  Burgundio  Tadi  Benigno." 

*  Sole  in  the  Milanesi  edition. 

The  first  of  these  groups  is  over  the  door  of  the  Baptistery,  not  over  that 
of  the  Duomo.  The  Pietro  Gambacorti  mentioned  above  was  betrayed  and 
killed  in  1392,  and  therefore  in  the  time  of  Giovanni  Pisano  was  not  yet  born 
or  was  a  child.  The  inscription  Sub  Petri  cicra,^^  etc.,  refers  to  another 
Pietro  who  was  warden  of  the  Baptistery  in  1304  and  in  1315. 

The  second  group  is  now  on  the  Campo  Santo, 

See  Sig.  Supine's  article  on  Giovanni  Pisano,  Arch.  Stor.^  Jan. -April,  1895. 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


45 


Around  the  pedestal  of  the  group  representing  Pisa, 

"  Virginis  ancilla  sum  Pisa  quieta  sub  ilia." 

And  on  that  of  the  Emperor, 

"  Imperat.  Henricus  qui  Christo  fertur  amicus." 

In  the  old  parochial  church  of  Prato,  under  the  altar  of 
the  principal  chapel,  the  girdle  of  the  Virgin  had  been 
preserved  during  a  long  series  of  years.  This  relic  had 
been  brought  to  his  native  place  by  Michele  da  Prato, 
when  he  returned  from  the  Holy  Land  in  the  year  1141, 
and  by  him  it  was  consigned  to  the  care  of  Uberto,  dean 
of  the  Chapter,  who  deposited  it  in  the  above-named  sanc- 
tuary, where  it  has  ever  been  held  in  high  veneration.  But 
in  the  year  1312,  a  native  of  Prato, — a  man  of  very  bad 
character,  a  sort  of  Ser  Ciappelletto,''^  so  to  speak, — laid  a 
plan  for  the  abstraction  of  the  holy  girdle.  This  being  dis- 
covered, the  criminal  suffered  death  for  his  sacrilege,  at  the 
hands  of  justice.  But  the  people  of  Prato,  alarmed  for  the 
safety  of  the  girdle,  resolved  to  build  a  strong  and  suitable 
receptacle  for  its  better  security.  They  accordingly  sum- 
moned Giovanni,  who  was  then  getting  old,  and,  by  his 
counsels,  they  built  a  chapel  in  the  principal  church,  where- 
in they  deposited  the  girdle.  They  also  greatly  enlarged 
the  church,  from  the  designs  of  the  same  artist,  covering 
the  outside  witli  black  and  white  marble,  as  they  did  also 
with  the  campanile,  which  may  be  still  seen.''^  At  length, 
having  now  become  very  old,  Giovanni  Pisano  expired 
in  the  year  1320,'^-^  after  having  produced  many  works, 

"See  the  story  of  Ser  Ciappelletto  in  Boccaccio's  Decameron,  Gior.  I., 

Novella  i. 

'2  The  enlargement  of  the  cathedral  was  commenced  1317.  The  Campanile 
left  unfinished  by  Giovanni  was  completed  circa  1340,  by  two  Sienese,  Niccolo 
di  Cecco  del  Mercia  and  Sano,  his  pupil.  They  also  finished  the  pulpit  of 
the  Cl7Uola  Chapel,  1354-1359.    Milanesi,  I  318,  note  1. 

Milanesi  cannot  give  the  exact  year  of  Giovanni's  death.  It  must  post- 
date 1338,  if  he  designed  the  Scrovegni  monument  in  the  Arena  chapel  of 
Padua,  but  Perkins  doubts  iii.s  authorship  in  this  tomb,  thus  re-establishing 
the  possibility  that  he  died  in  1330. 


46 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


both  in  sculpture  and  architecture,  over  and  above  tliose 
here  enumerated.  And,  of  a  truth,  we  owe  much  gratitude 
both  to  himself  and  his  father  Niccola,  seeing  that,  in  times 
wholly  destitute  of  any  good  ideas  in  design,  and  from  the 
midst  of  profound  darkness,  they  cast  no  small  light  on  all 
pertaining  to  art ;  for  that  age,  therefore,  they  were  truly 
excellent.  Giovanni  was  honorably  interred  in  the  Campo 
Santo,  and  in  the  same  tomb  with  his  father.  He  left  many 
scholars  who  gained  considerable  repute  after  his  death  ; 
but  Lino,'^'*  a  sculptor  and  architect  of  Siena,  was  more  par- 
ticularly distinguished  among  them.  He  built  the  chapel 
wherein  are  deposited  the  remains  of  San  Ranieri,  in  the 
Duomo  of  Pisa,  and  which  is  richly  decorated  in  marble. 
Lino  also  erected  the  baptismal  font  of  the  same  cathedral, 
inscribing  his  name  among  its  ornaments. 

Nor  is  it  any  cause  of  wonder  that  Niccola  and  Giovanni 
should  have  executed  so  large  a  number  of  works;  for, 
beside  that  both  lived  to  a  good  old  age,  they  were,  at  that 
time,  the  first  masters  in  Europe,"^^  and  there  were  few  under- 

Milanesi  suspects  that  Vasari  means  by  Lino,  one  Tino  da  Camaino, 
author  of  the  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Henry  11.  now  in  the  Pisan  Campo  Santo, 
of  Bishop  Orso  in  the  Florentine  Duomo,  and  of  Tedice  Aliotti  in  S.  M. 
Novella.    See  also  M.  Marcel  Reymond,  in  the  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts. 

Niccola  Pisano  found  art  at  a  very  low  ebb.  His  study  of  nature  corrected 
by  the  ideal  of  the  antique  gave  the  death-blow  to  Byzantinism  and  laid  the 
foundation  for  a  great  school  of  sculptors  and  architects.  From  him  Symonds 
dates  the  birth  of  the  First  Renaissance,  saying  that  among  the  Greeks  he 
would  have  been  honoured  with  a  special  cultus  as  the  Hero  Eponym  of  Art. 
Perkins  considers  that  he  bears  the  same  relation  to  Italian  art  as  Dante 
to  Italian  literature,  and  Lord  Lindsay  does  not  overestimate  the  importance 
of  Niccola,  when  he  claims  that  the  influence  of  his  art  was  felt  in  the  remote 
forests  of  Germany.  Niccola  not  only  showed  men  where  to  study  but  how 
to  study. 

In  his  imjiartial  and  ready  eclecticism  made  fruitful  by  his  wonderful  power 
of  assimilation,  Niccola  was  a  Raphael  of  early  sculpture,  turning  Ma- 
donna into  an  Ariadne  when  an  antique  relief  was  near  enough  to  afford 
him  a  model  and  remaining  a  Tuscan-Gothic  sculptor  in  Bologna,  where  no 
Graeco-Roman  work  met  his  eye.  His  greatest  fault  is  overcrowding  his 
compositions,  and  using  figures  of  different  sizes  in  the  same  panels.  As  an 
artist  he  heads  the  long  sequence  of  the  Renaissance  of  which  his  Pisan  Pul- 
pit is  the  initial  monument. 

Giovanni  Pisano  developed  his  style  principally  after  his  father's  death. 


NICCOLA  AND  GIOVANNI  OF  PISA 


47 


takings  of  importance  in  which  they  did  not  take  part,  as 
may  be  proved  from  numerous  inscriptions  in  addition  to 
those  above  cited. 

Like  Niccola,  he  often  overcrowded  his  compositions,  and  introduced  figures 
of  different  and  discordant  proportions.  But  he  is  a  great  dramatic  artist, 
and  though  the  dignity  of  Niccola  is  replaced  by  exaggerated  movements,  the 
latter  are  interesting  and  full  of  invention.  In  his  masterpiece,  the  pulpit  of 
Saint  Andrea  at  Pistoja,  the  poignant  dramatic  interest  is  pushed  almost 
to  grotesqueness.  To  quote  Dr.  Bode,  Giovanni  "is  Giotto's  true  master, 
and  in  the  Gothic  pl.-istic  art  of  Italy,  he  holds  a  place  which  corresponds 
to  that  of  Donatello  m  the  Quattrocento,  of  Michelangelo  in  the  Cinqueceuto 
and  Seicento.'''' 

The  scholars  of  Niccola  Pisano  were  his  son  Giovanni,  Fra  Guglielmo 
Agnelli,  Lapo,  Donato  di  Recevuto,  and  Goro  di  Ciuccio  Ciuti.  The 
principal  pupil  of  GioTauni  Pisano  was  Andrea  Pisano. 


GIOTTO,  FLORENTINE  PAINTER,  SCULPTOR, 
AND  ARCHITECT. 

[Born  1266;  died  1336  (1337  common  style).] 

Bibliography.— J.  Ruskin,  Giotto  and  his  Works  at  Padua.  Fea,  Bes- 
crizione  ragionata  della  sacrosanta  patriarcale  hanlica  e  cappella  papale  di 
S.  Francesco  d^Assisi,  Rome,  1820.  Selvatico,  Sulla  CappelUna  degli  Scrovegni 
nelV  Arena  di  Fadova,  Padua,  1836.  Description  of  the  Chapel  of  the  An- 
nunziata  delP  Arena,  or  Giotto's  Chapel,  at  Padua ;  privately  printed  by 
Lady  Callcott  in  1835.  Lord  Lindsay,  Christian  Art.  Pastoris  e  Milanesi, 
Sul  ritratto  di  Dante  A  lighieri  che  si  vuole  dipinto  nella  cappella  del  Podestd 
di  Firenze,  1865.  Harry  Quilter,  Giotto,  London,  1889.  See  also  the  ex- 
cellent passages  upon  The  School  of  Giotto  in  Vernon  Lee's  Buphorion  and 
in  Symonds's  Renaissance.  In  Woltmann  and  Woermann,  History  of  Paint- 
ing, the  life  of  Giotto  is  a  particularly  good  one.  See  for  reproductions  of 
works  at  Assisi  the  book  published  by  E.  Plon  et  Nourrit,  Paris,  Saint 
Fraiigois  d' Assise.  See  also  the  photographs  from  an  architect's  drawing  of 
cross-sections  of  the  interior,  sold  at  Assisi  by  a  local  photographer. 

THE  gratitude  which  the  masters  in  painting  owe  to 
Nature — who  is  ever  the  truest  model  to  him  who,  pos- 
sessing the  power  to  select  the  brightest  parts  from 
her  best  and  loveliest  features,  employs  himself  unweariedly 
in  the  reproduction  of  these  beauties — this  gratitude,  I  say, 
is  due,  in  my  judgment,  to  the  Florentine  painter.  Giotto, 
seeing  that  he  alone — although  born  amidst  incapable  artists, 
and  at  a  time  when  all  good  methods  in  art  had  long  been 
entombed  beneath  the  ruins  of  war — yet,  by  the  favour  of 
Heaven,  he,  I  say,  alone  succeeded  in  resuscitating  art,  and 
restoring  her  to  a  path  that  may  be  called  the  true  one. 
And  it  was  in  truth  a  great  marvel,  that  from  so  rude  and 
inapt  an  age,  Giotto  should  have  had  strength  to  elicit  so 
much,  that  the  art  of  design,  of  which  the  men  of  those 
days  had  little,  if  any,  knowledge,  was,  by  his  means,  elfect- 
ually  recalled  into  life.    The  birth  of  this  great  man  took 


GIOTTO 


49 


place  in  the  hamlet  of  Vespignano,  fourteen  miles  from  the 
city  of  Florence,  in  the  year  1276.^  His  father's  name  was 
Bondone,  a  simple  husbandman,^  who  reared  the  child,  to 
whom  he  had  given  the  name  of  Giotto,  with  such  decency 
as  his  condition  permitted.  The  boy  was  early  remarked 
for  extreme  vivacity  in  all  his  childish  proceedings,  and  for 
extraordinary  promptitude  of  intelligence ;  so  that  he  became 
endeared,  not  only  to  his  father,  but  to  all  who  knew  him  j 
in  the  village  and  around  it.  When  he  was  about  ten  years 
old,  Bondone  gave  him  a  few  sheep  to  watch,  and  with  these 
he  wandered  about  the  vicinity — now  here  and  now  there. 
But,  induced  by  Nature  herself  to  the  arts  of  design,  he  was 
perpetually  drawing  on  the  stones,  the  earth,  or  the  sand, 
some  natural  object  that  came  before  him,  or  some  fantasy 
that  presented  itself  to  his  thoughts.  It  chanced  one  day 
that  the  affairs  of  Cimabue  took  him  from  Florence  to  Ves- 
pignano, when  he  perceived  the  young  Giotto,  who,  while 
his  sheep  fed  around  him,  was  occupied  in  drawing  one  of 
them  from  the  life,^  with  a  stone  slightly  pointed,  upon  a 
smooth  clean  piece  of  rock, — and  that  without  any  teaching 
whatever,  but  such  as  Nature  herself  had  imparted.  Halt- 
ing in  astonishment,  Cimabue  inquired  of  the  boy  if  he 
would  accompany  him  to  his  home,  and  the  child  replied,  he 

1  More  probably  in  1206,  at  Colle,  Commune  of  Vespignano.  He  is  known  as 
Giotto  di  Bondone,  Giotto  being  perhaps  a  contraction  of  Angiolotto  or  Am- 
brogiotto,  which  latter  in  turn  is  the  diminutive  of  Ambrogio  or  Ambruogio 
(literally  "little  Ambrose  "). 

2  Layard  cites  a  document  in  the  Florentine  archives  from  which  Giotto's 
father  appears  to  have  been  a  blacksmith.    See  Layard's  Kugler,  I.,  86. 

3  This  story  is  mentioned  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  See  Dr.  J.  P.  Richter's  Lit- 
erary Works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  I.,  333.  Milanesi  states  that  Vasari  took  it 
from  the  Commentario^^  of  Ghiberti  and  considers  it  a  fable.  An  anony- 
mous commentary  on  the  Divine  Comedy,  written  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  published  in  Bologna,  1866-1874,  contradicts  Vasari's  anecdote 
According  to  the  anonymous  author,  Giotto  had  been  apprenticed  to  a  wool 
merchant ;  instead  of  going  to  his  own  work  he  stopped  every  day  at  the  shop 
of  Cimabue,  where  he  spent  all  his  time  watching  the  painters.  When  his 
father  asked  the  wool  merchant  how  Giotto  was  progressing,  the  latter  replied 
that  he  had  not  seen  him  for  a  long  time.  Finally,  Bondone  found  the  boy 
with  the  painters  "towards  whom  his  nature  drew  him,"  and,  after  taking 
counsel  with  Cimabue,  he  sent  Giotto  to  study  with  that  master. 


50 


GIOTTO 


would  go  willingly,  if  his  father  were  content  to  permit  it. 
Cimabue  therefore  requesting  the  consent  of  Bondone,  the 
latter  granted  it  readily,  and  suffered  the  artist  to  conduct 
his  son  to  Florence,  where,  in  a  short  time,  instructed  by 
Cimabue  and  aided  by  Nature,  the  boy  not  only  equalled 
his  master  in  his  own  manner,  but  became  so  good  an  imi- 
tator of  Nature,  that  he  totally  banished  the  rude  G-reek 
manner, — restoring  art  to  the  better  path  adhered  to  in 
modern  times,  and  introducing  the  custom  of  accurately 
drawing  living  persons  from  nature,  which  had  not  been 
used  for  more  than  two  hundred  years.  Or,  if  some  had 
attempted  it,  as  said  above,  it  was  not  by  any  means  with 
the  success  of  Giotto.  Among  the  portraits  by  this  artist, 
and  which  still  remain,  is  one  of  his  contemporary  and  in- 
timate friend,  Dante  Alighieri,  who  was  no  less  famous  as 
a  poet  than  Giotto  as  a  painter,  and  whom  Messer  Giovan- 
ni Boccaccio  has  lauded  so  highly  in  the  introduction  to 
his  story  of  Messer  Forese  da  Rabatta,  and  of  Giotto,  the 
painter,  himself.  This  portrait  is  in  the  chapel  of  the  pal- 
ace of  the  Podesta  in  Florence  ;  ^  and  in  the  same  chapel  are 

*  This  fresco,  painted  in  1302  in  allusion  to  the  peace  of  1301 ,  was  white- 
washed when  the  chapel  of  the  Podestd  was  taken  for  prison  ofl&ces.  It  was 
not  only  hidden  but  was  nearly  forgotten  until  Moreni,  a  Florentine  anti- 
quary, made  reference  to  it  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century.  (See  Mr. 
Charles  Eliot  Norton's  work  on  the  portraits  of  Dante. )  An  American,  Mr. 
Wylde,  Signer  Bazzi,  and  two  Englishmen,  Mr.  Rich  and  the  artist  Seymour 
Kirkup,  resolved  in  1840  to  search  for  the  portrait,  agreeing  to  pay  all 
the  expenses,  whether  the  researches  were  successful  or  not.  The  first  portion 
uncovered  brought  to  light  the  portrait  of  Dante,  which  was  immediately  and 
barbarously  restored  by  Marini.  A  hole  had  been  knocked  in  the  eye  of 
Dante,  and  Mr.  Kirkup  says  :  "I  saw  the  Minister  of  Public  Works  directing 
Marini  how  to  paint  a  new  eye,  and  they  made  it  between  them,  too  small  and 
too  near  the  nose.  .  .  .  Not  contented  with  that  they  painted  the  rest 
of  the  face  to  match  the  new  eye.  The  figure  was  dressed  in  the  three  colorB 
worn  by  Beatrice, 

Sovra  candido  vel  cinta  d'oliva^ 
Donna  rrCapparve  sotto  verde  manto^ 
Vestita  di  color  di  Fiamma  viva. 

—Canto  XXX. 

These  colors  being  too  radical  for  the  time,1840,  all  danger  was  avoided  by  chang- 
ing the  green  to  chocolate  color."  Although  the  colors  were  the  emblems  of 
Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity,  they  belonged  to  the  Democratic  party  and  to  Free- 


GIOTTO 


51 


the  portraits  of  Ser  Brunetto  Latini,  master  of  Dante,  and 
of  Messer  Corso  Donati,  an  illustrious  citizen  of  that  day.^ 
The  first  pictures  of  Giotto  were  painted  for  the  chapel 
of  the  High  Altar,  in  the  Abbey  of  Florence,  where  he 
executed  many  works  considered  extremely  fine.  Among 
these,  an  Annunciation  is  particularly  admired  ;  the  ex- 
pression of  fear  and  astonishment  in  the  countenance  of  the 
Virgin,  when  receiving  the  salutation  of  Gabriel,  is  vividly 
depicted ;  she  appears  to  suffer  the  extremity  of  terror,  and 
seems  almost  ready  to  take  flight.  The  altar-piece  of  that 
chapel  is  also  by  Giotto  ;  but  this  has  been,  and  continues 
to  be,  preserved,  rather  from  the  respect  felt  for  the  work 
of  so  distinguished  a  man,  than  from  any  other  motive.® 
There  are  four  chapels  in  Santa  Croce  also  painted  by 
Giotto  : '  three  between  the  Sacristy  and  the  principal 
chapel,  and  one  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  church.  In  the 
first  of  the  three,  which  belongs  to  Messer  Ridolfi  de'  Bardi, 
and  wherein  are  the  bell-ropes,  is  the  life  of  St.  Francis. 
In  this  picture  are  several  figures  of  monks  lamenting  the 
death  of  the  saint  :  the  expression  of  weeping  is  very  natu- 
ral.^  In  the  second  chapel,  which  belongs  to  the  family  of 

masonry  as  well,  so  this  extraordinary  transformation — for  we  cannot  call  it 
restoration — took  place.  Milanesi,  in  a  strong  and  elaborately  considered  argu- 
ment, denies  that  Giotto  painted  these  frescoes,  and  consequently  the  portrait. 
He  quotes  Villani,  Manetti,  Ghiberti,  and  others,  carefully  examining  their 
statements.  The  balance  of  evidence  seems  to  be  in  his  favor,  and  to  prove  that 
the  portrait  of  Dante  painted  by  Giotto  was  on  the  altar-piece  (now  lost)  of 
the  chapel  and  not  upon  the  wall.  See  also  Pastoris  e  Milanesi  tiul  riiratto  di 
Dante  Alighieri  che  si  vuole  dipinto  nella  cajtella  del  Podesid  di  Firenze,  1865. 
6  They  are  directly  in  line  with  the  portrait  of  Dante, 

"  These  works  are  lost.  Masselli  suggests  that  the  Annunciation  in  the 
Academy  brought  from  the  Badia  may  be  a  repetition  of  the  Annunciation  of 
Giotto. 

T  The  frescoes  in  the  Peruzzi  and  Bardi  chapels  have  been  restored  by  re- 
moval of  the  whitewash.  Giotto's  frescoes  in  the  Spinelli  chapel  were  covered 
with  more  recent  paintings,  and  thus  irretrievably  lost.  Those  of  the  Giugni, 
now  Riccardi,  chapel  were  also  destroyed.  According  to  Villani,  the  first 
stone  of  Santa  Croce  was  laid  May  3,  1394,  so  that  Giotto's  works  must  be 
attributed  to  a  period  subsequent  to  his  return  from  Rome. 

8  The  whitewash  was  removed  in  1853.  On  the  ceiling  are  frescoeB  of  Pov- 
erty, Chastity,  and  Obedience. 


52 


GIOTTO 


Peruzzi,  are  two  passages  from  the  life  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  to  whom  the  chapel  is  dedicated,  wherein  the  danc- 
ing of  Herodias,^  and  the  promptitude  with  which  certain 
servants  are  performing  the  service  of  the  table,  are  depicted 
with  extreme  vivacity.  Two  other  paintings  in  the  same 
chapel,  also  exceedingly  fine,  are  events  from  the  life  of  St. 
John  the  Evangelist, — that  wherein  he  restores  Drusiana  to 
life,  and  his  own  ascension  into  Heaven.  The  third  chapel 
belongs  to  the  Giugni  family  :  it  is  dedicated  to  the  Apostles  ; 
and  Griotto  has  painted  in  it  various  scenes  from  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  many  of  them.  In  the  fourth  chapel,  which  is 
on  the  other  side  of  the  church  to  the  north,  belonging  to 
the  families  of  Tosinghi  and  Spinelli,  and  dedicated  to  the 
Assumption  of  our  Lady,  he  has  depicted  the  following  pas- 
sages from  the  life  of  the  Virgin  :  her  birth,  her  marriage, 
her  annunciation,  the  adoration  of  the  magi,  and  the  pre- 
sentation of  Christ  in  the  Temple.  This  last  is  a  most 
beautiful  thing  ;  for  not  only  is  the  warmest  expression  of 
love  to  the  child  to  be  perceived  on  the  face  of  the  old  man 
Simeon,  but  the  act  of  the  infant,  who,  being  afraid  of  him, 
stretches  its  arms  timidly  and  turns  towards  its  mother,  is 
depicted  in  a  manner  inexpressibly  touching  and  exquisite. 
The  Apostles  and  Angels,  with  torches  in  their  hands,  who 
surround  the  death-bed  of  the  Virgin,  in  a  succeeding  pict- 
ure, are  also  admirably  well  done.  In  the  same  church, 
and  in  the  chapel  of  the  Baroncelli  family,  is  a  picture  in 
distemper,  by  the  hand  of  Griotto  :  it  represents  the  corona- 
tion of  the  Virgin,  with  a  great  number  of  small  figures,  and 
a  choir  of  saints  and  angels,  very  carefully  finished.  On  this 
work,  the  name  of  the  master  and  the  date  are  written  in 
letters  of  gold.^^  Artists  who  reflect  on  the  period  at  which 
Giotto,  without  any  light  to  guide  him  towards  better  meth- 
ods, could  make  so  happy  a  commencement,  whether  as  re- 

« Vasari  here,  as  elsewhere,  confounds  Herodias  and  Herodias'  daughter, 
Salome.    This  fresco  was  uncovered  in  1841.    It  is  badly  damaged. 

10  The  name  (not  the  date)  is  inscribed.  Rosini,  in  his  chronology,  gives  the 
dates  of  frescoes  and  picture  as  1399-1303.  Milanesi  cousidera  1334  more 
probable  as  the  date. 


GIOTTO 


53 


spects  design  or  colouring,  will  be  compelled  to  regard  him 
with  great  respect  and  admiration.  There  are,  moreover, 
in  the  same  church  of  Santa  Croce,  and  above  the  marble 
tomb  of  Carlo  Marsuppini  of  Arezzo,  a  Crucifix,  a  figure  of 
the  Virgin,  a  St.  John  and  the  Magdalen  at  the  foot  of  the 
Cross,  all  by  the  hand  of  Giotto  ;  and  on  the  other  side  of 
the  church,  exactly  opposite  to  the  latter,  and  above  the 
burial-place  of  Leonardo  Aretino,  is  an  Annunciation,  near 
the  high  altar,  which  has  been  restored  with  very  little  judg- 
ment, by  the  hand  of  some  modern  painter  :  a  great  discredit 
to  those  who  had  the  custody  of  these  works.  In  the  refec- 
tory is  a  Tree  of  the  Cross, with  scenes  from  the  life  of  St. 
Louis,  and  a  Last  Supper, by  the  same  master.  On  the 
presses  or  wardrobes  of  the  sacristy,  also,  are  passages  from 
the  life  of  Christ  and  that  of  St.  Francis.^'*  Giotto  likewise 
painted  in  the  church  of  the  Carmine,  depicting  the  life  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist, for  the  chapel  of  that  Saint,  in  a  series 
of  pictures  ;  and  in  the  Guelphic  Palace  of  Florence  there 
is  a  painting  of  the  Christian  Faith,  admirably  executed  in 
fresco,  wherein  he  has  placed  the  portrait  of  Clement  IV., 
who  founded  the  society,  conferring  on  it  his  own  arms, 
which  it  has  borne  ever  since.  After  these  works  were 
finished,  Giotto  departed  from  Florence,  and  went  to  Assisi, 
to  complete  the  paintings  commenced  by  Cimabue.  Passing 
through  Arezzo,  he  painted  one  of  the  chapels  of  the  capitular 
church,  that  of  St.  Francis,  which  is  above  the  baptistery  ; 
and  on  a  round  column,  which  stands  beside  a  very  beautiful 
antique  Corinthian  capital,  are  portraits  of  St.  Francis  and 

1'  These  works  have  been  whitewashed. 

'2  The  Tree  of  the  Cross  and  other  frescoes  still  exist  in  the  refectory,  but 
they  are  not  by  Giotto  and  are  of  later  date. 

13  The  Last  Supper  is  ascribed  to  Taddeo  Gaddi,  the  Crucifixion  to  Niccolo 
di  Pietro  Gerini. 

i<  These  little  panels  are  by  a  pupil  of  Giotto ;  there  are  twenty-two  of  them 
in  the  Academy  at  Florence  and  two  in  Berlin.  Two  others  of  a  different 
size  [Morelli  says  three]  are  in  Munich. 

•5  They  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1771 ;  certain  fragments  of  frescoes  taken 
from  the  church  and  once  believed  to  be  by  Giotto  are  now  proved  to  post- 
date his  time.    See  Milanesi. 

1^  This  fresco  has  perished. 


54 


GIOTTO 


St.  Dominick,  by  his  hand,  both  taken  from  nature.  ^'^  In 
the  cathedral  without  Arezzo,  he  further  executed  the  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Stephen,  in  one  of  the  larger  chapels  ;  of 
which  the  composition  is  fine.^^  Having  finished  these 
things,  he  proceeded  to  Assisi,  a  city  of  Umbria,  being  in- 
vited thither  by  Fra  Griovanni  of  Muro^^  in  the  March,  who 
was  then  general  of  the  fraternity  of  St.  Francis.  Here,  in 
the  upper  church,^  and  under  the  corridor  which  traverses 

"  These  frescoes,  attributed  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  to  Jacopo  da  Casen- 
tino,  have  been  transferred  to  a  column  of  the  Presbytery,  and  are  the  only 
paintings  remaining  in  the  Pieve.  By  "taken  from  nature,"  Vasari  means 
painted  from  a  living  model,  Dominick  and  Francis  having  died  before 
Giotto's  time. 

18  Destroyed  in  1561. 

"  If  Giotto  was  called  to  Assisi  by  Fra  Giovanni  di  Muro,  it  could  not  have 
been  before  1296,  in  which  year  the  latter  was  elected  general  of  the  order. 
See  Waddingo  (sic),  quoted  by  Milanesi,  I,,  377,  note  3. 

In  the  plan  given  here  of  the  upper  church  at  Assisi,  the  visitor  is  sup- 
posed to  be  at  the  end  of  the  church  which  is  furthest  from  the  altar.  A  is 
on  the  left.    The  frescoes  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  partially  obliterated. 


A.  The  Creation  of  the  Earth.* 

B.  The  Creation  of  Man  * 

C.  The  Creation  of  Woman. 

D.  The  Temptation.* 

E.  The  Expulsion  from  Paradise. 

F.  G,  H.  Destroyed. 

I.  The  Building  of  the  Ark. 
J.  Destroyed. 


K.  The  Sacrifice  of  Isaac* 
L.  Nearly  destroyed. 
M.  Esau  sells  his  Birthright. 
N.  Esau  before  Isaac. 
O.  Joseph  in  the  Well.* 
P.  The  Cup  found  in  the  Sack  of  Ben- 
jamin. 


GIOTTO 


55 


the  windows,  he  painted  a  series  of  thirty-two  frescoes,^^ 
representing  passages  from  the  life  and  acts  of  the  saint ; 
namely,  sixteen  on  each  side,  a  work  which  he  executed 
so  perfectly  as  to  acquire  great  fame  from  it.  And,  of  a 
truth,  there  is  singular  variety  in  these  frescoes  ;  not  only 


a.  The  Annunciation. 

b.  Nearly  destroyed. 

c.  The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds. 

d.  Destroyed. 

e.  The  Presentation.* 

f.  The  Plight  into  Egypt.* 

g.  Destroyed. 

h.  The  Baptism  of  Christ. 
L  The  Marriage  of  Cana.* 
j.  Destroyed. 


k.  The  Capture  on  the  Mount. 
1.  Destroyed. 

m.  Christ  Bearing  the  Cross, 
n.  The  Crucifixion, 
o.  The  Fieid. 

p.  The  Marys  at  the  Sepulchre. 

q.  The  Ascension. 

V.  The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

8,  t.  Medallions — SS.  Peter  and  Paul. 


Frescoes  from  the  Legend  of  St.  Francis,  upper  chxirch  of  Assist : 


1.  Homage  to  St.  Francis. 

2.  St.  Francis  gives  away  his  cloak. 

3.  A  Vision  of  St.  Francis. 

4.  The  Crucifix  speaks  to  St.  Francis. 

5.  St.  Francis  renounces  his  Father. 

6.  The  Vision  of  Pope  Innocent. 

7.  Approval  of    the  Order   of  St. 

Francis. 

8.  St.  Francis  in  the  Chariot  of  Fire. 

9.  St.  Francis  hears  a  voice  from 

Heaven. 

10.  The  Franciscans  cast  out  Dev- 

ils. 

11.  The  Ordeal  before  the  Soldan. 

12.  St.  Francis  in  a  Cloud  is  spoken  to 

by  God. 

13.  St.  Francis  rei)resents  in  a  Mys- 

tery Play  the  Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds. 

14.  The  Miraculous  Draught. 


16, 


St.  Francis  prophesies  death  to 

his  Host. 
St.  Francis  Preaches  before  Inno- 
cent. 

Miraculous  appearance  at  Aries  of 
St.  Francis. 

19.  St.  Francis  receives  the  <S'</<7ma/a. 

20.  The  Ascension  of  St.  Francis. 
The  Revelation  to  the  Bishop  of 

Assisi  of  St.  Francis'  death. 
The  Incredulity  of  Girolamo. 
St.  Clara  before  the  body  of  St. 

Francis. 
Canonisation  of  St.  Francis. 
The  Vision  of  Gregory. 
20.  St.   Francis   saves  the  life  of  a 
Wounded  Man. 

27.  Apparition  of  St.   Francis  to  a 

lady  of  Benevento. 

28.  St.  Francis  liberates  a  Prisoner. 


17 


18. 


15.  St.  Francis  and  the  Birds. 

In  the  Life  of  Cimabue  Vasari  says  that  Cimabue  commenced  the  frescoes 
from  the  Life  of  St.  Francis. 

As  to  the  direct  authorship  of  those  twenty-eight  frescoes  in  the  upper 
church  of  Assisi,  which  are  usually  called  Giotto's,  critics  disagree,  and 
the  damaged  condition  of  the  works  makes  it  impossible  to  completely 
settle  the  question.  There  is,  however,  little  doubt  that  Giotto  planned  and 
directed  the  greater  part  of  the  work,  and  personally  executed  as  much  of  it 
ae  he  was  able,  within  the  limits  of  the  time  allowed  him. 


56 


GIOTTO 


in  the  gestures  and  attitudes  of  each  figure,  but  also  in 
the  composition  of  all  the  stories  :  the  different  costumes 
of  those  times  are  also  represented  ;  and,  in  all  the  accesso- 
ries, nature  is  most  faithfully  adhered  to.  Among  other 
figures,  that  of  a  thirsty  man  stooping  to  drink  from  a 
fountain,  is  worthy  of  perpetual  praise  :  the  eager  desire 
with  which  he  bends  towards  the  water  is  portrayed  with 
such  marvellous  effect,  that  one  could  almost  believe  him  to 
be  a  living  man  actually  drinking.  There  are  many  other 
parts  of  this  work  that  well  merit  remark,  but  I  refrain 
from  alluding  to  them,  lest  I  become  too  discursive.  Let  it 
suffice  to  say,  that  it  added  greatly  to  the  fame  of  Giotto, 
for  the  beauty  of  the  figures,  the  good  order,  just  proportion, 
and  life  of  the  whole,  while  the  facility  of  execution,  which 
he  had  received  from  nature,  and  afterwards  perfected  by 
study,  was  made  manifest  in  every  part  of  the  work.  Giotto 
has  indeed  well  merited  to  be  called  the  disciple  of  nature 
rather  than  of  other  masters  ;  having  not  only  studiously  cul- 
tivated his  natural  faculties,  but  being  perpetually  occupied 
in  drawing  fresh  stores  from  nature,  which  was  to  him  the 
never-failing  source  of  inspiration. 

Wlien  the  stories  above  described  were  finished,  Giotto 
continued  to  labour  in  the  same  place,  but  in  the  lower 
church,^  where  he  painted  the  upper  part  of  the  walls  beside 
the  high  altar,  together  with  the  four  angles  of  the  vault,  be- 
neath which  the  remains  of  St.  Francis  repose.  All  of  these 
display  rich  and  original  invention.^    In  the  first  angle  is 

Giotto's  frescoes  in  the  lower  church  of  Assisi  belong  (according  to  Wolt- 
mann  and  Woermann )  to  the  period  following  the  completion  of  the  Arena 
Chapel  of  Padaa.  Vasari,  however,  describes  these  later  frescoes  with  the 
earlier  ones  in  the  upper  church.  Some  of  the  frescoes  mentioned  by  Vasari 
are  not  admitted  by  all  critics  to  be  by  Giotto,  while  certain  authors  are  dis- 
posed to  accredit  the  execution  of  only  two  or  three  of  them  to  the  latter 
painter. 

23  The  upper  and  lower  churches  offer  the  richest  fresco  colour  which  the 
fourteenth  century  has  left  in  Italy  ;  it  approaches  the  depth  of  mosaic  ;  per- 
haps it  would  be  more  correct  to  say  that  in  places  it  looks  like  so  much  old 
Limoges  enamel.  The  colour  of  the  lower  church  is  solemn,  that  of  the  upper 
is  more  cheerful ;  there  a  blue  and  green  scheme  prevails,  especially  in  the 


GIOTTO 


67 


St.  Francis  glorified  in  heaven,  and  surrounded  by  those  virt- 
ues which  are  essential  to  him  who  desires  fully  to  partake 
of  the  grace  of  God.  On  one  side  is  Obedience,  placing  a 
yoke  on  the  neck  of  a  friar  who  kneels  before  her,  the  bands 
of  the  yoke  being  drawn  towards  heaven  by  hands  above. 
The  finger  on  the  lip  of  Obedience  imposes  silence,  while  her 
eyes  are  fixed  on  Jesus,  from  whose  side  the  blood  is  flowing  : 
beside  this  Virtue,  stand  Prudence  and  Humility,  to  show 
that  where  there  is  true  obedience,  there  are  also  humility  and 
prudence,  directing  every  action  towards  the  right  and  good. 
In  the  second  angle  is  Chastity,  who,  firm  on  a  well-defended 
fortress,  refuses  to  yield  to  any  of  the  kingdoms,  crowns, 
and  glories,  that  are  offered  her  on  all  sides.  At  the  feet  of 
Chastity  is  Purity,  washing  certain  naked  figures,  while 
Force  is  conducting  others  towards  her,  to  be  also  washed  and 
purified.  On  one  side  of  Chastity  stands  Penitence,  driv- 
ing away  Love  with  the  cord  of  discipline,  and  putting  In- 
continence to  flight.  The  third  compartment  exhibits  Pov- 
erty walking  barefoot  amidst  thorns  :  a  dog  follows  her, 
barking,  and  a  boy  throws  stones  at  her,  while  a  second 
gathers  the  thorns  about  her,  and  presses  them  into  her  legs 
with  a  stick.  This  Poverty^  is  here  seen  to  be  espoused  by 
St.  Francis,  while  Christ  himself  is  holding  her  hand  ;  and 
Hope,  not  without  significance,  is  present,  together  with 
Charity.^  In  the  fourth  and  last  of  these  angles  is  a  St. 
Francis,  also  glorified,  as  in  the  first  compartment.  He  is 
dressed  in  the  white  tunic  of  the  deacon,^  and  is  triumphant 
in  Heaven,  attended  by  a  multitude  of  angels,  who  form  a 

vaulting,  where  rain  has  done  much  damage  to  the  forms  but  has  produced 
Bomo  lovely  accidental  colours.  In  1893  this  vaulting  was  being  again  restored, 
but  the  painter  told  us  he  should  limit  himself  to  filling  in  flat  tints  and 
should  not  attempt  modelling. 

2'  The  drawing  on  vellum  of  this  group  was  in  the  collection  of  M.  Reiset, 
from  which  it  passed  into  that  of  the  Duke  d'Aumale.  See  Giotto's  Canzone 
on  Poverty.— Milanesi,  I.,  42r)-428. 

26  The  influence  of  Dante  is  felt  in  these  frescoes  ;  the  espousal  of  St.  Fran- 
cis with  Holy  Poverty  is  referred  to  in  //  Paradiao,  catito  XI. 

2«  St.  Francis  was  so  humble  that  he  was  never  ordained  priest,  but  always 
remained  a  deacon. 


58 


GIOTTO 


choir  around  him  ;  they  hold  a  standard,  on  which  is  a  cross 
with  seven  stars  ;  and  over  all  is  the  Holy  Spirit.  In  each 
of  these  angles  are  certain  Latin  words,  explanatory  of  the 
events  depicted.  Besides  the  paintings  in  these  four  com- 
partments those  on  the  walls  are  extremely  fine,  and  well 
deserve  our  admiration,  not  only  for  their  beauty,  but  also 
for  the  care  with  which  they  were  executed,  which  was  such 
that  they  have  retained  their  freshness  even  to  this  day.^ 
The  portrait  of  Giotto  himself,  very  well  done,  may  be 
seen  in  one  of  these  pictures  ;  and  over  the  door  of  the  sac- 
risty is  a  fresco,  also  by  him,  representing  St.  Francis  at  the 
moment  when  he  receives  the  stigmata  ;  the  expression  of 
the  saint  being  so  full  of  love  and  devotion,  that  to  me  this 
seems  to  be  the  best  picture  that  Giotto  has  produced  in 
this  work,  which  is  nevertheless  all  truly  beautiful  and  ad- 
mirable. 

When  Giotto  had  at  length  completed  this  St.  Francis, 
he  returned  to  Florence,  where,  immediately  after  his  ar- 
rival, he  painted  a  picture  to  be  sent  to  Pisa.  This  is 
also  a  St.  Francis,  standing  on  the  frightful  rocks  of  La 
Verna  ;  and  is  finished  with  extraordinary  care  :  it  exhibits 
a  landscape,  with  many  trees  and  precipices,  which  was  a 
new  thing  in  those  times.  In  the  attitude  and  expression  of 
St.  Francis,  who  is  on  his  knees  receiving  the  stigmata,  the 
most  eager  desire  to  obtain  them  is  clearly  manifest,  as  well 
as  infinite  love  towards  Jesus  Christ,  who  from  heaven 

27  M.  Muntz  instances  the  way  in  which  Giotto  laid  antiquity  under  con- 
tribution. In  a  fresco  of  the  upper  church  of  San  Francesco  at  Assisi 
he  painted  a  Roman  temple  and  selected  for  his  example  the  Temple  of 
Minerva  in  that  town,  (^ee  Les  Precurseure  de  la  Renaissance^  p.  22.)  In 
other  works  he  also  showed  study  of  classic  details.  See  E.  Miintz,  Les  Pri- 
mitifs,  pp.  226,  227. 

2«  By  Stigmata^''  we  are  to  understand  the  five  wounds  of  Christ.  Sev- 
eral other  saints,  among  them  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  and  St.  Clara  of 
Montefalco,  bore  these  marks  as  a  sign  of,  and  reward  for,  peculiar  sanc- 
tity. Modern  medical  science  attributes  them  to  natural  causes.  "  There  are 
cases  on  record  in  which  grave  nervous  disturbances  have  resulted  in  such 
modifications  of  the  flesh  as  may  have  left  the  traces  of  wounds  in  scars 
and  blisters." 


GIOTTO 


59 


above,  where  lie  is  seen  surrounded  by  the  seraphim,  grants 
these  stigmata  to  his  servant  with  looks  of  such  lively  affec- 
tion, that  it  is  not  possible  to  conceive  any  thing  more  per- 
fect. Beneath  this  picture  are  three  others,  also  from  the 
life  of  St.  Francis,  and  very  beautiful.  The  picture  of  the 
Stigmata?,  just  described,  is  still  in  the  church  of  San  Fran- 
cesco ^  in  Pisa,  close  beside  the  high  altar.  It  is  held  in 
great  veneration  for  the  sake  of  the  master  ;  and  caused  the 
Pisans  to  entrust  him  with  the  decoration  of  their  Campo 
Santo.  The  edifice  was  scarcely  completed,  from  the  design 
of  Giovanni  Pisano,  as  we  have  said  above,  when  Giotto  was 
invited  to  paint  a  portion  of  the  internal  walls.  This  mag- 
nificent fabric,  being  encrusted  externally  with  rich  marbles 
and  sculptures,  executed  at  immense  cost,  the  roof  covered 
with  lead,  and  the  interior  filled  with  antique  monuments 
and  sepulchral  urns  of  Pagan  times,  brought  to  Pisa  from 
all  parts  of  the  world ,  it  was  determined  that  the  inner 
walls  should  be  adorned  with  the  noblest  paintings.  To 
that  end  Giotto  repaired  to  Pisa,  and  on  one  of  the  walls  of 
the  Campo  Santo  he  painted  the  history  of  Job,^  in  six  large 
frescoes  ;  but,  as  he  judiciously  reflected,  that  the  marble 
of  that  part  of  the  building  where  he  went  to  work,  being 
turned  towards  the  sea,  and  exposed  to  the  south-east  winds, 
was  always  humid,  and  gave  out  a  certain  saline  moisture, 
as  do  nearly  all  the  bricks  of  Pisa,  which  fades  and  corrodes 
the  colours  and  pictures,  so  he  caused  a  coating  or  intonaco 
to  be  made  for  every  part  whereon  he  proposed  to  paint  in 
fresco,  that  his  work  might  be  preserved  as  long  as  possible  ; 
this  intonaco  was  composed  of  lime,  chalk,  and  powdered 
bricks,  all  so  well  mingled  together,  that  the  paintings 
which  he  afterwards  executed  on  the  surface  thus  pre- 
pared, remain  in  tolerable  preservation  to  this  day.  Nay, 

'9  This  picture  is  now  in  the  Louvre.  It  is  inscribed :  OPUS  JOCTI 
FLORENTINI.  The  lower  part  is  divided  into  three  compartments.  The 
Vision  of  Innocent  III.,  Innocent  III.  Receiving  St.  Francis,  and  St.  Fran- 
cis Preaching  to  the  Birds. 

«o  These  paintings  are  now  known  to  be  by  Francesco  of  Volterra,  who 
began  them  in  1371. — Mihvnesi,  I.,  381. 


60 


GIOTTO 


tliey  might  have  been  in  much  better  condition,  if  the  neglect 
of  those  who  ought  to  have  taken  care  of  them  had  not  suf- 
fered them  to  sustain  injury  from  the  damp  :  but  this  not 
having  been  guarded  against,  as  it  might  easily  have  been, 
has  caused  some  of  the  paintings  to  be  spoiled  in  certain 
places;  the  flesh  tints  having  become  blackened,  and  the 
plaster  fallen  olf.  It  is,  besides,  the  nature  of  chalk, 
-  when  mingled  with  lime,  to  become  corroded  and  peel  off 
with  time,  when  it  inevitably  ruins  the  colours  ;  although 
at  first  it  seems  to  bind  and  secure  them.  In  these  stories, 
beside  the  portrait  of  Messer  Farinata  degli  Uberti,^^  there 
are  many  admirable  figures,  more  particularly  those  of  cer- 
tain villagers,  who  bring  the  grievous  news  of  his  losses  to 
Job  :  no  faces  could  be  more  eloquently  demonstrative  of 
the  grief  they  feel  for  the  lost  cattle  and  other  calamities, 
than  are  these.  There  is  likewise  extraordinary  grace  in 
the  figure  of  a  servant,  who,  with  a  fan  of  branches  in  his 
hand,  stands  near  the  suffering  Job,  now  abandoned  by  all 
else.  Every  part  of  his  figure  is  beautiful ;  but  most  of  all 
to  be  admired  is  his  attitude — as,  driving  the  flies  from  his 
leprous  and  ill-odoured  master  with  one  hand,  he  guards 
himself  from  the  pungent  scents,  from  which  he  obviously 
shrinks,  with  the  other.  The  remaining  figures  of  these 
paintings,  and  the  heads,  those  of  the  men  as  well  as  the 
women,  are  exceedingly  beautiful ;  the  draperies  also  are 
painted  with  infinite  grace  ;  nor  is  it  at  all  surprising  that 
this  work  acquired  so  much  fame  for  its  author  as  to  induce 
Pope  Benedict  IX. ^  to  send  one  of  his  courtiers  from  Tre- 
viso  to  Tuscany  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  what  kind  of 
man  Giotto  might  be,  and  what  were  his  works  :  that  pon- 
tiff then  proposing  to  have  certain  paintings  executed  in 
the  church  of  St.  Peter.    The  messenger,  when  on  his  way 

31  He  was  the  commander  of  the  Ghibelline  forces  at-  the  battle  of  Ar- 
bia,  and  owing  to  his  influence  Florence  was  saved  from  being  razed  to  the 
ground.    See  the  Inferno^  Cantos  VI.  and  X. 

32Vasari  probably  meant  Benedict  XI.  Baldinucci,  however,  shows  that 
Giotto  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Boniface  VIII.  Giotto  probably  arrived 
in  Rome  in  1295,  or  according  to  some  authorities  between  1298  and  1300. 


GIOTTO 


61 


to  visit  Giotto,  and  to  inquire  what  other  good  masters 
there  were  in  Florence,  spoke  first  with  many  artists  in 
Siena — then,  having  received  designs  from  them,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Florence,  and  repaired  one  morning  to  the  work- 
shop where  Giotto  was  occupied  with  his  labours.  He  de- 
clared the  purpose  of  the  pope,  and  the  manner  in  which 
that  pontiff  desired  to  avail  himself  of  his  assistance,  and 
finally,  requested  to  have  a  drawing,  that  he  might  send  it 
to  his  holiness.  Giotto,  who  was  very  courteous,  took  a  sheet 
of  paper,  and  a  pencil  dipped  in  a  red  colour  ;  then,  resting 
his  elbow  on  his  side,  to  form  a  sort  of  compass,  with  one 
turn  of  the  hand  he  drew  a  circle,  so  perfect  and  exact  that 
it  was  a  marvel  to  behold.  This  done,  he  turned,  smiling 
to  the  courtier,  saying,  Here  is  your  drawing."'  Am  I 
to  have  nothing  more  than  this  ?  "  inquired  the  latter,  con- 
ceiving himself  to  be  jested  with.  That  is  enough  and  to 
spare,"  returned  Giotto  :  Send  it  with  the  rest,  and  you 
will  see  if  it  will  be  recognized."  The  messenger,  unable 
to  obtain  anything  more,  went  away  very  ill-satisfied,  and 
fearing  that  he  had  been  fooled.  Nevertheless,  having  de- 
spatched the  other  drawings  to  the  pope,  with  the  names  of 
those  who  had  done  them,  he  sent  that  of  Giotto  also,  relat- 
ing the  mode  in  which  he  had  made  his  circle,  without 
moving  his  arm  and  without  compasses  ;  from  which  the 
pope,  and  such  of  the  courtiers  as  were  well  versed  in  the 
subject,  perceived  how  far  Giotto  surpassed  all  the  other 
painters  of  his  time.  This  incident  becoming  known,  gave 
rise  to  the  proverb,  still  used  in  relation  to  people  of  dull 
wits — Tu  sei piu  tondo  die  VO  di  Giotto'' — the  signifi- 
cance of  which  consists  in  the  double  meaning  of  the  word 

tondo which  is  used  in  the  Tuscan  for  slowness  of  intel- 
lect and  heaviness  of  comprehension,  as  well  as  for  an  ex- 
act circle.  The  proverb  has  besides  an  interest  from  the 
circumstance  which  gave  it  birth. 

Giotto  was  then  invited  by  the  above-named  pope  to 
Rome,  where  his  talents  were  at  once  appreciated  by  that 
pontiff,  and  himself  treated  very  honourably.    He  was  in- 


62 


GIOTTO 


stantly  appointed  to  paint  a  large  picture  in  the  sacristy  of 
St.  Peter's,^  with  five  others  in  the  church  itself — these  last 
being  passages  from  the  life  of  Christ ;  ^  all  which  he  exe- 
cuted with  so  much  care,  that  no  better  work  in  distemper 
ever  proceeded  from  his  hands  ;  so  that  he  well  deserved  the 
reward  of  600  gold  ducats,  which  the  pope,  considering  him- 
self well  served,  commanded  to  be  paid  him,  beside  con- 
ferring on  him  so  many  favours,  that  there  was  talk  of  them 
throughout  all  Italy. 

The  pope  having  seen  these  works  of  Giotto,  whose  man- 
ner pleased  him  infinitely,  commanded  that  he  should  paint 
subjects,  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  entirely  around 
the  walls  of  St.  Peter's  ;  and,  for  a  commencement,  the  artist 
executed  in  fresco,  the  Angel,  seven  braccia  high,  which  is 
now  over  the  organ  :  this  was  followed  by  many  other  pict- 
ures, of  which  some  have  been  restored  in  our  own  days, 
while  more  have  been  either  destroyed  in  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  the  new  walls,  or  have  been  taken  from  the  old  edi- 
fice of  St.  Peter's,  and  set  under  the  organ ;  as  is  the  case 
with  a  Madonna,  which  was  cut  out  of  the  wall  that  it 
might  not  be  totally  destroyed,  and,  being  supported  by 
beams  and  bars  of  iron,  was  thus  carried  away  and  secured, 
for  its  beauty,  in  the  place  wherein  the  pious  love  which  the 
Florentine  doctor,  Messer  Nicolo  Acciainoli,*  has  ever  borne 
to  the  excellent  in  art,  desired  to  see  it  enshrined,  and  where 
he  has  richly  adorned  this  work  of  Giotto  with  a  framework 
composed  of  modern  pictures  and  of  ornaments  in  stucco.^ 

*  Read  Acciaiuoli.  The  Acciainoli  was  a  great  Florentine  family  and  this 
Doctor  Niccold  was  named  after  the  famous  Niccolo  Acciaiuoli,  Grand 
Seneschal  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  who  built  the  Certosa  of  Val  d'Ema  and 
was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio. 

"3  This  altar-piece  is  now  in  the  sacristy  of  St.  Peter's.  It  was  painted  for 
Cardinal  Gaetano  Stefaneschi  for  the  sacristy  of  old  St.  Peter's.  There  are 
additional  subjects  in  the  borders,  etc.  For  a  description  of  them  see  Messrs. 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle's  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,  I.  p.  253. 

3*  These  works  executed  in  old  St.  Peter's  have  perished. 
All  of  these  works  in  St.  Peter's  have  perished.  Vasari  makes  no  mention 
of  Giotto's  frescoes  of  the  porch  of  the  Lateran  of  which  the  fragment  repre- 
senting Pope  Boniface  VIII,  between  two  cardinals  proclaiming  the  jubilee 
(1300)  alone  remains. 


GIOTTO 


63 


The  picture  in  mosaic,  known  as  the  Navicella,^  and  which 
stands  above  the  three  doors  of  the  portico  in  the  vesti- 
bule of  St.  Peter^s,  is  also  from  the  hand  of  Giotto, — a 
truly  wonderful  work,  and  deservedly  eulogized  by  all  en- 
lightened judges  ;  and  this  not  only  for  the  merit  of  the 
design,  but  also  for  that  of  the  grouping  of  the  apostles, 
who  labour  in  various  attitudes  to  guide  their  boat  through 
the  tempestuous  sea,  while  the  winds  blow  in  a  sail,  which 
is  swelling  with  so  vivid  a  reality,  that  the  spectator  could 
almost  believe  himself  to  be  looking  at  a  real  sail.  Yet  it 
must  have  been  excessively  difficult  to  produce  the  harmony 
and  interchange  of  light  and  shadows  which  we  admire  in 
this  work,  with  mere  pieces  of  glass,  and  that  in  a  sail  of 
such  magnitude, — a  thing  which,  even  with  the  pencil, 
could  only  be  equalled  by  great  effort.  There  is  a  fisher- 
man, also,  standing  on  a  rock  and  fishing  with  a  line,  in 
whose  attitude  the  extraordinary  patience  proper  to  that 
occupation  is  most  obvious,  while  the  hope  of  prey  and  his 
desire  for  it,  are  equally  manifest  in  his  countenance.  Be- 
neath this  work  are  three  small  arches,  painted  in  fresco ; 
but  as  they  are  almost  entirely  destroyed,  I  Avill  say  no  more 
of  them ;  but  the  praises  universally  bestowed  by  artists  on  the 
mosaic  above  described,  were,  without  doubt,  fully  merited. 

Giotto  afterwards  painted  a  large  picture  of  the  Cruci- 
fixion, in  distemper,  for  the  church  of  Minerva,  belonging 
to  the  Preaching  Friars,  which  was  very  highly  praised  at 
the  time  :  ^  he  then  returned  to  his  native  Florence,  whence 
he  had  been  absent  six  years.  No  long  time  after  this, 
Benedict  IX.  (XL)  being  dead,  Clement  V.  was  elected  pope 

3«  Executed,  according  to  Baldinucci,  in  1298.  This  mosaic  has  been  restored 
so  many  times  that  the  composition  is  probably  all  that  can  be  ascribed  to 
Giotto.  Eastlake's  Kuglcr  states  that  the  fisherman  and  the  figures  in  the  air 
are  in  their  present  form  the  work  of  Marcello  Provenzale.  The  ship  (la 
Navicella)  struggling  through  the  waves  was  often  used  in  early  Christian 
art  to  symbolize  the  trials  of  the  primitive  church.  It  was  painted  in  the 
catacombs,  carved  on  the  sarcoj)hagi,  and  placed  in  the  vestibule  of  the 
basilica  for  the  edification  of  the  faithful. 

3'  This  crucifixion  is  lost.  There  is  still  a  wooden  crucifix  in  the  church 
which  is  assigned  to  Giotto  without  the  slightest  reason. 


64 


GIOTTO 


at  Perugia,  when  Giotto  was  obliged  to  depart  again  with 
that  pontiff,  who  removed  his  court  to  Avignon,  where  our 
artist  produced  many  admirable  works  ;  ^  and  not  there  only, 
but  in  many  other  parts  of  France,  he  painted  many  beauti- 
ful pictures  and  frescoes  which  infinitely  delighted  the  pon- 
tiff and  his  whole  court,  insomuch  that,  when  all  were  fin- 
ished, Giotto  was  graciously  dismissed  with  many  presents, 
so  that  he  returned  home  no  less  rich  than  honoured  and  re- 
nowned. Among  other  things,  he  brought  back  with  him 
the  portrait  of  the  pontiff,  which  he  afterwards  presented  to 
his  disciple  Taddeo  Gaddi.  The  return  of  Giotto  to  Flor- 
ence took  place  in  the  year  1316  ;  but  he  was  not  long  per- 
mitted to  remain  in  that  city,  being  invited  to  Padua  by  the 
Signori  della  Scala,  for  whom  he  painted  a  most  magnificent 
chapel  ^  in  the  Santo,  a  church  just  then  erected.  From 
Padua  he  proceeded  to  Verona,  where  he  painted  cer- 
tain pictures  for  Messer  Cane,  the  father  of  Francesca  da 
Rimini,^*'  *  in  the  palace  of  that  noble,  more  particularly  the 
portrait  of  Cane  himself  :  he  also  executed  a  picture  for 
the  Fraternity  of  St.  Francis.  Having  completed  these 
works,  Giotto  departed  for  Tuscany,  but  was  compelled  to 
halt  at  Ferrara,  where  he  painted  certain  works  for  the 
Signori  d^Este,  as  well  in  their  palace  as  in  the  church 
of  Sant'  Agostino,  where  they  are  still  to  be  seen.''^ 
Meanwhile,  as  it  had  come  to  the  ears  of  Dante  that  Giotto 
was  in  Ferrara,  he  so  contrived  that  the  latter  was  induced 

*  Here  the  translator  intercalated  a  few  words  which  do  not  exist  in  the  • 
original  work,  i.  e.;  ''the  father  of  Francesca  da  Rimini."    Can  Grande  was 
not  the  father  of  Francesca ;  she  was  the  daughter  of  Guido  da  Polenta  of 
Ravenna  and  the  wife  of  Lancilotto  Malatesta,  lord  of  Rimini. 

s»  Though  Vasari  repeats  this  statement  in  the  Life  of  Andrea  Pisano  and 
an  early  commentator  of  Dante  also  asserts  that  Giotto  visited  Avignon,  no 
works  of  his  remain  there.  The  dates  are  hard  to  reconcile,  and  Crowe  and 
Cavalcaselle  refuse  to  believe  in  the  visit.  Milanesi,  I.,  387,  affirms  that  Bene- 
dict did  not  invite  him  to  Avignon  until  after  1334,  and  that  the  artist's  death 
intervening,  no  journey  took  place. 

3»  In  the  church  of  St.  Anthony,  only  slight  vestiges  remain. 

*°  Can  Grande  della  Scala. 
Neither  documents  nor  paintings  exist  which  would  prove  that  Giotto 
worked  ia  Verona  or  Ferrara. 


GIOTTO 


65 


to  visit  Ravenna,  where  the  poet  was  then  in  exile,  and 
where  Giotto  painted  some  frescoes,  which  are  moderately 
good,  in  the  church  of  San  Francesco,  for  the  Signori  da 
Polenta. He  then  proceeded  from  Ravenna  to  Urbino, 
where  he  also  painted  some  pictures.  After  this,  as  he  was 
passing  through  Arezzo  he  could  not  refuse  to  comply  with 
the  wishes  of  Piero  Saccone,  Avho  had  ever  treated  him  with 
great  kindness,  and  therefore  painted  a  fresco  for  him  in  the 
principal  chapel  of  the  Episcopal  church.  The  subject  is 
St.  Martin  dividing  his  mantle  in  half,  and  bestowing  one 
of  the  portions  on  a  beggar,  who  stands  before  him  almost 
entirely  naked. Having  then  executed  a  large  Crucifixion, 
in  distemper,  on  panel,  for  the  abbey  of  Santa  Fiore,  which 
is  still  in  the  middle  of  that  church,^  he  returned  at  length 
to  Florence,  where,  among  many  other  works,  he  painted 
pictures,  both  in  distemper  and  fresco,  for  the  convent  of 
the  Nuns  of  Faenza,  all  of  which  have  been  lost  in  the  de- 
struction of  that  convent.  In  the  year  1322,  his  most  inti- 
mate friend,  Dante,  having  died,  to  his  great  sorrow,  the 
year  preceding,  G-iotto  repaired  to  Lucca,  and,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Castruccio,  then  lord  of  that  city,  which  was  the 
place  of  his  birth,  he  executed  a  picture,*^  in  the  church  of 
San  Martino,  representing  Christ  hovering  in  the  air  over 
the  four  saints,  protectors  of  Lucca,  namely,  San  Piero,  San 
Regolo,  San  Martino,  and  San  Paulino  ;  they  appear  to  be 
recommending  to  him  a  pope  and  an  emperor,  who,  as  many 
believe,  are  Frederick  of  Bavaria  and  the  antipope,  Nicholas 
V.  Many  also  maintain  that  at  San  Frediano,  in  this  same 
city  of  Lucca,  Giotto  likewise  designed  the  castle  and  fort- 
ress of  Giusta,"^^  which  is  impregnable. 

The  works  in  San  Francesco  have  perished. 
■*3  This  picture  has  penshed. 
**  This  work  still  exists  and  is  in  good  condition. 

*6  Neither  annotators  of  Vasari  nor  guides  of  Lucca  mention  this  picture.  If 
Giotto  painted  it  in  1332,  it  antedated  the  Antipope,  Nicholas  V.;  it  might 
have  represented  Federigo  d' Austria  and  Pope  Giovanni  XXII. 

46  It  is  doubtful  if  the  works  at  Augusta,  of  which  Giusta  is  a  corruption, 
were  designed  by  Giotto. 
5 


C6 


GIOTTO 


Some  time  after  this,  and  when  Giotto  had  returned  to 
Florence,  Robert,  king  of  Naples/'  wrote  to  his  eldest  son 
Charles,  king  of  Calabria,  who  was  then  in  Florence,  desir- 
ing that  he  would,  by  all  means,  send  Giotto  to  him  at 
Naples,  he  having  just  completed  the  convent  and  church 
of  Santa  Clara,  which  he  desired  to  see  adorned  by  him 
with  noble  paintings.  Giotto,  therefore,  being  thus  invited 
by  so  great  and  renowned  a  monarch,  departed  with  the  ut- 
most readiness  to  do  him  service,  and  being  arrived,  he 
painted  various  subjects,  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
in  the  dilferent  chapels  of  the  building.  It  is  said  that  the 
passages  from  the  Apocalypse,  which  he  has  painted  in  one 
of  these  chapels,^^  were  inventions  of  Dante,  as  were  probably 
those  so  highly  eulogized  of  Assisi,  respecting  which  we  have 
already  spoken  at  sufficient  length.  It  is  true  that  Dante 
was  then  dead,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  these  subjects 
may  have  been  discussed  between  Giotto  and  him  :  a  thing 
which  so  frequently  happens  among  friends. 

But  to  return  to  Naples.  Giotto  executed  many  works 
in  the  Castel  del?  Uovo,  particularly  in  the  chapel,^^  which 
greatly  pleased  the  king,  by  whom  Giotto  was  indeed  so  much 
beloved,  that  while  at  his  work  he  was  frequently  held  in 
conversation  by  that  monarch,  who  took  pleasure  in  watch- 
ing the  progress  of  his  labours  and  in  hearing  his  remarks. 
Now  Giotto  had  always  a  jest  ready,  and  was  never  at  a  loss 
for  a  witty  reply,  so  that  he  amused  the  king  with  his  hand 
while  he  painted,  and  also  by  the  acuteness  of  his  pleasant 
conversation.  Thus,  one  day,  the  king  telling  him  that  he 
would  make  him  the  first  man  in  Naples,  Giotto  replied  that 

In  1329,  Robert  I.  King  of  Naples,  wrote  to  Charles,  who  was  duke  and 
not  king  of  Calabria.  The  date  of  Giotto's  arrival  at  Naples  is  variously 
given  as  1329  or  1330. 

*^  The  frescoes  in  Santa  Chiara  were  whitewashed  in  the  eighteenth  century 
*'  to  give  more  light  to  the  church  ;  "  those  in  the  Castel  dell'  Uovo  shared  the 
same  fate.  There  is,  however,  one  remaining  fresco  which  is  ascribed  to  Giotto 
and  his  pupils  by  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle.  It  represents  the  miracle 
of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes,  and  is  in  the  oW  refectory  of  the  former  monagtQiy, 
which  was  a  carpet  warehouse  in  1890. 

*»  These  works  are  lost. 


GIOTTO 


67 


he  already  was  the  first  man  in  Naples,  "  for  to  that  end  it  is 
that  I  dwell  at  the  Porta  Reale/'  where  the  first  houses  of  the 
city  stand.  Another  time,  the  king  saying  to  him,  Giotto, 
if  I  were  in  your  place,  now  that  it  is  so  hot,  I  would  give 
up  painting  for  a  time,  and  take  my  rest/'  ^^And  so  I 
would  do,  certainly,"  replied  Giotto,  "if  I  were  in  your 
place."  Giotto  being  thus  so  acceptable  to  King  Robert,  . 
was  employed  by  him  to  execute  numerous  paintings  in  a  ^ 
hall  (which  King  Alfonso  afterwards  destroyed  to  make 
room  for  the  castle),  and  also  in  the  church  of  the  Incoro- 
nata.^  Among  those  of  the  hall,  were  many  portraits  of 
celebrated  men,  Giotto  himself  being  of  the  numoer.  One 
day  the  king,  desiring  to  amuse  himself,  requested  Giotto  to 
depict  his  kingdom,  when  the  painter,  as  it  is  said,  drew  an 
ass,  bearing  a  pack-saddle  loaded  with  a  crown  and  sceptre, 
while  a  similar  saddle  lay  at  his  feet,  also  bearing  the  en- 
signs of  sovereignty:  these  last  were  all  new ;  and  the  ass 
scented  them  with  an  expression  of  desire  to  change  them 
for  those  he  then  bore.  The  king  inquired  what  this  pict- 
ure might  signify  ;  when  Giotto  replied,  "  Such  is  the  king- 
dom, and  such  the  subjects,  who  are  every  day  desiring  a 
new  lord."  Leaving  Naples  to  proceed  to  Rome,  Giotto  was 
detained  at  Gaeta,  where  he  was  persuaded  to  paint  certain 
subjects  from  the  New  Testament  for  the  church  of  the  An- 
nunciation.^^ These  works  are  now  greatly  injured  by  time, 
but  not  to  such  a  degree  as  to  prevent  us  from  clearly  dis- 
tinguishing the  portrait  of  Giotto  himself,  which  will  be 
found  near  a  large  and  very  beautiful  crucifix.  These  works 
being  completed,  he  passed  some  days  in  Rome,  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Signor  Malatesta,  to  whom  he  could  not  refuse 
this  favour  ;  he  then  repaired  to  Rimini,  of  which  city  the 
said  Malatesta  was  lord,  and  painted  numerous  pictures  in 

Dates  prove  that  the  frescoes  of  the  Incoronata  are  not  by  Giotto.  The 
frescoes  represent  the  seven  sacraments.  The  "Sacrament  of  Marriage" 
shows  the  nuptials  of  Louis  of  Tarentum  and  Giovanna,  queen  of  Naples. 
This  wedding  did  not  take  place  until  eleven  years  after  Giotto's  death,  and 
the  building  itself  was  not  begun  until  1353. 
n  These  works  have  perished. 


68 


GIOTTO 


the  church  of  San  Francesco ;  but  these  works  were  after- 
wards destroyed  by  Gismondo,  son  of  Pandolfo  Malatesta, 
who  rebuilt  the  entire  edifice.  He  also  painted  a  fresco  on 
the  cloisters  in  front  of  the  church.  This  was  the  history 
of  the  Beata  Michelina.^^ 

Having  finished  his  labours  for  this  noble  Giotto  executed 
a  painting  at  the  request  of  a  Florentine  Prior^  who  was 
then  at  San  Cataldo  of  Rimini :  the  subject  is  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  reading  to  his  monks  ;  and  the  work  is  without 
the  door  of  the  church.  He  then  departed,  and  returned 
to  Ravenna,  where  he  painted  a  chapel  in  fresco  in  the 
church  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  which  was  highly 
celebrated. After  this,  Giotto  returned  to  Florence,  rich 
in  honours,  and  with  sufficient  worldly  wealth.  He  there 
painted  a  crucifix  in  wood,^^  larger  than  the  natural  size,  in 
distemper,  on  a  ground  of  gold,  for  the  church  of  St. 
Mark,  and  which  was  placed  in  the  south  aisle  of  the 
church.  He  executed  a  similar  work  for  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  being  aided  in  this  last  by  Puccio 
Capanna,  his  scholar  :  it  may  still  be  seen  over  the  princi- 
pal door  of  the  church,  on  the  right  as  you  enter,  and  over 
the  tomb  of  the  Gaddi  family.  In  the  same  church  he 
painted  a  St.  Louis,  for  Paolo  di  Lotto  d'Ardinghelli,  at  the 

"  These  frescoes  have  been  whitewashed.  La  Michelina  died  in  1356.  Giotto 
therefore  could  not  have  executed  these  works.  They  are  probably  by  one  of 
his  pupils.    A  long  description  of  the  frescoes  is  omitted  here. 

83  This  fresco,  once  above  the  great  door  of  the  church,  which  is  now  called 
San  Domenico,  has  disappeared. 

54  The  vaulting  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Bartolommeo  has  frescoes  of  the  four 
Evangelists  and  four  Doctors  of  the  Church.  Other  frescoes  are  in  Santa 
Maria  itt  Porto  Fuori,  Santa  Croce,  and  the  Badia  della  Pomposa.  They  are 
attributed  to  Giotto,  but  are  very  inferior  to  his  general  work.  For  detailed 
descriptions  see  Lord  Lindsay's  Sketches  of  Christian  Art. 

85  The  authenticity  of  this  crucifix  is  doubtful.  It  is  now  in  the  interior 
over  the  entrance  gate. 

s6  The  design  is  not  considered  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  to  be  by  Giotto. 
In  a  will  dated  June  15,  1312,  Riccucio  di  Puccio  left  money  for  oil  for  a 
lamp  to  be  kept  burning  in  front  of  the  crucifix  "by  the  great  painter 
Giotto  di  Bondone. "  Vasari  makes  Puccio  Capanna  the  collaborator  of  Gi- 
otto. 


GIOTTO 


69 


feet  of  which  is  the  portrait  of  the  donor  and  his  wife, 
taken  from  nature. 

In  the  year  1327,  Guido  Tarlati  da  Pietramala,  Bishop 
and  Lord  of  Arezzo,  died  at  Massa  di  Maremma,  when  re- 
turning from  Lucca,  whither  he  had  gone  to  visit  the  em- 
peror, and  his  body  was  carried  to  Arezzo,  where  it  received 
the  honour  of  a  most  solemn  and  magnificent  funeral.  It 
was  then  resolved  by  Piero  Saccone,  and  Dolfo  da  I^ietra- 
mala,  brother  of  the  bishop,  that  a  sepulchral  monument  in 
marble,  worthy  of  the  greatness  of  a  man  who  had  been  lord 
spiritual  and  temporal  of  the  city,  as  well  as  chief  of  the 
Ghibelline  party  in  Tuscany,  should  be  raised  to  his  mem- 
ory. They  wrote  accordingly  to  Giotto,  requesting  him  to 
prepare  designs  for  a  very  splendid  tomb,  adorned  with 
whatever  might  most  worthily  enrich  it ;  and  sending  him 
the  required  measurements.  They  prayed  him,  at  the 
same  time,  to  procure  them  a  sculptor,  the  most  excellent, 
according  to  his  opinion,  that  could  be  found  in  Italy,  they 
referring  the  whole  affair  entirely  to  his  judgment.  Giotto, 
who  was  very  obliging,  made  the  design,  and  sent  it  them, 
when  the  monument  was  erected  accordingly,  as  will  be  re- 
lated in  its  proper  place. ^  Now  the  talents  of  Giotto  Avere 
very  highly  appreciated  by  Piero  Saccone,  and  he,  having 
taken  the  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro,  no  long  time  after  he  had 
received  the  above-named  design,  took  a  picture  thence, 
which  had  been  formerly  painted  by  Giotto,  and  which  he 
carried  to  Arezzo.  The  figures  were  small,  and  the  work 
afterwards  fell  to  pieces,  but  the  fragments  were  diligently 
sought  by  Baccio  Gondi,  a  Florentine  gentleman,  and  lover 
of  the  fine  arts,  who  was  commissioner  of  Arezzo :  having 
recovered  some  of  them,  he  took  them  to  Florence,  where 

^'  The  fate  of  this  picture  is  not  known. 

According  to  Vasari,  in  the  Lives  of  Agostino  and  Agnolo  of  Siena, 
Giotto  seems  to  have  recommended  these  artists  to  the  Arctines,  who  gave 
them  the  commission  for  the  monument,  but  Milanesi  believes  these  sculptors 
to  have  been  too  well  established  in  their  own  art  to  accept  the  design  of 
another,  though  they  did  undertake  the  monument  in  1327  and  finish  it  in 
1330. 


70 


GIOTTO 


he  holds  them  in  high  estimation,  and  preserves  them  care- 
fully, together  with  other  works  of  the  same  artist,  who 
produced  so  many,  that,  were  all  enumerated,  their  amount 
would  seem  incredible.  And  not  many  years  since,  when  I 
was  myself  at  the  hermitage  of  Camaldoli,  where  I  executed 
many  works  for  the  reverend  fathers,  I  saw  a  small  Cruci- 
fixion by  Giotto,  in  one  of  the  cells,  which  had  been  brought 
thither  by  the  very  Reverend  Don  Antonio,  of  Pisa,  then 
general  of  the  congregation  of  Camaldoli.  This  work, 
which  is  on  a  gold  ground,  and  has  the  name  of  Giotto  in- 
scribed on  it  by  himself,  is  very  beautiful,  and  is  still  pre- 
served, as  I  was  told  by  the  Reverend  Don  Silvano  Razzi,  a 
monk  of  Camaldoli,  in  the  monastery  Degli  Angeli,  at  Flor- 
ence, where  it  is  kept  in  the  cell  of  the  prior,  together  with 
a  most  exquisite  picture  by  Raphael,  as  a  rare  and  valuable 
relic  of  the  master. 

A  chapel  and  four  pictures  were  painted  by  Giotto,  for 
the  fraternity  of  the  Umiliati  d^  Ognissanti,  in  Florence ; 
among  these  works  is  a  figure  of  the  Virgin,  surrounded  by 
angels,  and  holding  the  child  in  her  arms,  with  a  large 
crucifix  on  panel,^  the  design  of  which  last  being  taken  by 
Puccio  Capanna,  he  executed  great  numbers  in  the  same 
manner  (having  intimate  knowledge  of  Giotto's  method), 
which  were  afterwards  scattered  through  all  Italy.  When 
this  book  of  the  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Ar- 
chitects, was  first  published,  there  was  a  small  picture  in 
distemper,  in  the  transept  of  the  church  belonging  to  the 
Umiliati,  which  had  been  painted  by  Giotto  with  infinite  care. 
The  subject  was  the  death  of  the  Virgin,  with  the  Apostles 
around  her,  and  with  the  figure  of  Christ,  who  receives  her 
soul  into  his  arms.  This  work  has  been  greatly  prized  by 
artists,  and  was  above  all  valued  by  Michael  Angelo  Buon- 
arotti,  who  declared,  as  we  have  said  before,  that  nothing  in 

6*  These  works  are  lost. 

The  paintiug  of  the  Virgin  is  in  the  Florentine  Academy,  the  crucifixion 
is  in  the  Gondi-Dini  chapel  of  the  church.  The  other  works  mentioned  are 
lost. 

Said  to  be  in  a  private  collection  in  England. 


GIOTTO 


71 


painting  conld  be  nearer  to  the  life  than  this  was,  and  it  rose 
still  higher  in  the  general  estimation  after  these  Lives  had 
appeared  ;  but  has  since  been  carried  away  from  the  church, 
perhaps  from  love  of  art  and  respect  to  the  work,  which 
may  have  seemed  to  the  robber  to  be  not  sufficiently  rever- 
enced, who  thus  out  of  piety  became  impious,  as  our  poet 
saith.  It  may  with  truth  be  called  a  miracle,  that  Giotto 
attained  to  so  great  an  excellence  of  manner,  more  particu- 
larly when  we  consider  that  he  acquired  his  art  in  a  certain 
sense  without  any  master. 

After  completing  these  works,  and  on  the  9th  of  July, 
1334,  Giotto  commenced  the  campanile  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore  ;  the  foundations  were  laid  on  massive  stone,  sunk 
twenty  braccia  beneath  tlie  surface,  on  a  site  whence  gravel 
and  water  had  previously  been  excavated  ;  then  having  made 
a  good  concrete  to  the  height  of  twelve  braccia,  he  caused 
the  remainder,  namely  eight  braccia,  to  be  formed  of  ma- 
sonry. The  bisliop  of  the  city,  with  all  the  clergy  and 
magistrates,  were  present  at  the  foundation,  of  which  the 
first  stone  was  solemnly  laid  by  the  bishop  himself. The 
edifice  then  proceeded  on  the  plan  before  mentioned,  and 
in  the  Gothic  manner  of  those  times ;  all  the  liistorical  rep- 
resentations which  were  to  be  the  ornaments,  being  designed 
witli  infinite  care  and  diligence  by  Giotto  himself,  who 
marked  out  on  the  model  all  the  compartments  where  the 
friezes  and  sculptures  were  to  be  placed,  in  colors  of  white, 
black,  and  red.  The  lower  circumference  of  the  tower  is  of 
one  hundred  braccia,  twenty-five  that  is  on  each  of  the  four 
sides.  Tlie  height  is  one  hundred  and  forty-four  braccia. 
And  if  that  which  Lorenzo  di  Cione  Ghiberti  has  written  be 
true,  as  I  fully  believe  it  is,  Giotto  not  only  made  the  model 
of  the  campanile,  but  even  executed  a  part  of  the  sculptures 

*'Richa  [Chiese  Florentine,  Y J.,  G2)  gives  the  following  decree,  which  is 
dated  ]'.V.M.    The  record  is  from  pa.<^e  5r»  of  Del  Migliore's  MS. 

"  The  Florentine  republic  soaring  even  above  the  conception  of  the  most 
competent  flidges,  desires  tliat  an  edifice  shall  be  constructed  so  magnificent 
in  its  heiglit  and  quality  that  it  shall  surpass  any  thing  of  the  kind  produced 
in  the  time  of  their  greatest  power  by  the  Greeks  and  iiomans." 


72 


GIOTTO 


and  reliefs, — those  representations  in  marble,  namely,  which 
exhibit  the  origin  of  all  the  arts.^  Lorenzo  also  affirms  that 
he  saw  models  in  relief  from  the  hand  of  Giotto,  and  more 
particularly  those  used  in  these  works  :  an  assertion  that  we 
can  easily  believe  ;  for  design  and  invention  are  the  parents 
of  all  the  arts,  and  not  of  one  only.  This  campanile,  ac- 
cording to  the  design  of  Giotto,  was  to  have  been  crowned 
by  a  spire  or  pyramid,  of  the  height  of  fifty  braccia  :  but  as 
this  was  in  the  old  Gothic  manner,  the  modern  architects 
have  always  advised  its  omission  :  the  building  appearing 
to  them  better  as  it  is.  For  all  these  works,  Giotto  was  not 
only  made  a  citizen  of  Florence,^  but  also  received  a  pension 
of  a  hundred  golden  florins  yearly — a  large  sum  in  those 
times — from  the  commune  of  Florence.  He  was  also  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  the  work,  which  he  did  not  live 
to  see  finished  ;  but  which  was  continued  after  his  death  by 
Taddeo  Gaddi.^^  While  this  undertaking  was  in  progress, 
Giotto  painted  a  picture  for  the  nuns  of  San  Giorgio,^^  and 
in  the  abbey  of  Florence,  within  the  church,  and  on  an 
arch  over  the  door,  he  executed  three  half-length  figures, 
which  were  afterwards  whitewashed  over,  to  give  more  light 
to  the  church.  In  the  great  hall  of  the  Podesta  in  Florence, 
Giotto  painted  a  picture,  the  idea  of  which  was  afterwards 
frequently  borrowed.  In  this  he  represented  the  Commune 
seated,  in  the  character  of  a  judge,  with  a  sceptre  in  the 
hand,  and  equally  poised  scales  over  the  head,  to  intimate 

63  In  the  life  of  Luca  della  Robbia,  Vasari  limits  Giotto's  workmanship  to 
the  first  and  second  reliefs  representing  sculpture  and  architecture  on  the 
northern  face  of  the  Campanile.  The  remaining  five  on  that  side  were  exe- 
cuted by  Luca  after  Giotto's  designs.  All  the  rest  are  accredited  to  Andrea 
Pisano.  In  spite  of  Ghiberti's  statement  that  Giotto  designed  them  nothing 
is  known  with  certainty  regarding  Giotto's  part  in  these  works,  and  some  of 
the  best  critics  refuse  him  any  part  in  Andrea's  sculptures.  These  rilievi  of 
the  Campanile  are  very  famous,  and  Mr.  Ruskin  has  written  of  them  at  great 
length. 

6»  Villani  speaks  of  nostra  cittadino'",  from  this  expression  we  might 
assume  that  Giotto  may  have  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  citizenship  at  an  earlier 
period  of  his  life.    Both  Boccaccio  and  Petrarch  also  call  him  citizen. 

«5  Not  by  Taddeo  Gaddi  but  by  Andrea  Pisano  and  Francesco  Talenti 

««  This  picture,  so  much  admired  by  Ghiberti,  is  lost. 


GIOTTO 


73 


the  rectitude  of  her  decisions.  The  figure  is  surrounded  by 
four  Virtues  :  these  are  Force  witli  generosity,  Prudence 
with  tlie  laws,  J ustice  with  arms,  and  Temperance  with  tlie 
word.  This  is  a  very  beautiful  picture,  of  appropriate  and 
ingenious  invention.^' 

About  this  time,  Giotto  once  more  repaired  to  Padua, 
where  he  painted  several  pictures,  and  adorned  many  chap- 
els ;  but  more  particularly  that  of  the  Arena,^  where  he 
executed  various  works,  from  which  he  derived  both  honour 

This  work  is  also  lost.  It  may  have  suggested  the  famous  fresco  of  Am- 
brogio  Lorenzetti  in  Siena. 

0"  The  Arena  chapel  was  built  about  1303  by  Enrico  Scrovegno,  son  of  that 
Rinaldo  Scrovegno  placed  by  Dante  among  the  avaricious  in  the  seventh  circle 
of  the  Inferno.    Giotto  was  summoned  to  paint  it  towards  1300. 

The  lines  of  the  cliapel  are  pure  and  severe.  The  first  twelve  pictures  are 
devoted  to  the  life  of  the  Virgin  as  recorded  in  the  apocryphal  gospels,  The 
*'  ProtevangcUon  "  and  the  "  Gospel  of  Saint  Mary."  In  1890  the  chapel  was 
being  restored.    Mr.  Ruskin,  "Giotto and  His  Works  in  Padua,"  gives  a  de- 


74 


GIOTTO 


and  profit.^*  In  Milan  also  he  produced  many  paintings, 
which  are  scattered  throughout  that  city,  and  are  held  in 
high  estimation  even  to  this  day.™  Finally,  and  no  long 
time  after  he  had  returned  from  Milan,  having  passed  his 

tailed  description  of  it.  The  annexed  plan  giving  the  general  arrangement 
of  the  frescoes  is  numbered  in  accordance  with  the  list. 

List  of  the  frescoes  in  the  Arena  chapel  of  Padua. 
The  Rejection  of  Joachim's  Offer-  20.  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents, 
ing.  21.  Christ  disputing  with  the  Doctors* 

22.  The  Baptism  of  Christ. 

23.  The  Marriage  at  Cana. 

24.  The  Raising  of  Lazarus. 
25, 
26, 


2.  Joachim  retires  to  the  Sheepf  old. 

3.  Appearance  of  the  Angel  to  Anna. 

4.  Joachim's  Sacrifice. 

5.  Joachim's  Vision. 

6.  The  Meeting  at  the  Golden  Gate. 

7.  The  Birth  of  the  Virgin. 

8.  The  Presentation  of  the  Virgin. 

9.  The  Bringing  of  the  Rods  to  the 

High  Priest. 

10.  The  Watching  of  the  Rods. 

11.  The  Betrothal  of  the  Virgin. 

12.  The  Virgin  conducted  Home. 

13.  The  Annunciatory  Angel. 

14.  The  Virgin  Annunciate. 

15.  The  Salutation. 

16.  The  Nativity. 

17.  The  Adoration  of  the  Magi. 

18.  The  Presentation  in  the  Temple. 

19.  The  Flight  into  Egypt. 


The  Entry  into  Jerusalem. 
Christ  Driving  the  Pharisees  from 
the  Temple. 

27.  The  Bargain  with  Judas. 

28.  The  Last  Supper. 

29.  Christ   Washing   the  Disciples* 

Feet. 

30.  The  Kiss  of  Judas. 

31.  Christ  Before  Caiaphas. 

32.  The  Flagellation. 

33.  Christ  Bearing  the  Cross. 

34.  The  Crucifixion. 

35.  The  Pietd. 

36.  The  Noli  me  tangere. 

37.  The  Ascension. 

38.  The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 


The  narrow  panels  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  are  filled  with  figures  of  the  Virtues 
and  Vices.  On  the  lunette  above  the  Tribune  is  a  "  Christ  in  Glory,"  and  at 
the  western  extremity  of  the  church  is  the  "  Last  Judgment."  The  field  of 
the  vaulting  is  blue  and  starred,  and  is  adorned  with  medallions  of  prophets. 
Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  suggest  that  the  large  panels  were  probably 
executed  with  the  aid  of  pupils,  but  that  Giotto  painted  the  Virtues  and 
Vices  with  his  own  hand. 

89 «'  The  man  who  painted  these  pictures  had  genius,  heart,  ideas — everything 
except  science,  which  is  the  work  of  centuries,  and  finish  of  execution. "  Taine, 
Voyage  en  Italie — Florence  et  Venice. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Stillman  in  his  "Giotto"  {Century  Magazine.,  Jan.,  1889)  speaks 
of  the  Arena  chapel  as  an  "  inexhaustible  quarry  of  pure  art."  Certainly  in 
their  composition,  their  pimplicity,  their  effectiveness  as  pure  decoration,  and 
in  their  dramatic  force,  these  frescoes  are  some  of  the  finest  things  in  the 
whole  history  of  art,  ancient  or  modern,  though  they  lack  the  subtilties  of 
later  technical  achievement. 

^0  The  works  executed  in  Milan  have  perished. 


GIOTTO 


75 


life  in  the  production  of  so  many  admirable  works,  and 
proved  himself  a  good  Christian  as  well  as  an  excellent 
painter,  Giotto  resigned  his  soul  to  God  in  the  year  1336, 
not  only  to  the  great  regret  of  his  fellow-citizens,  but  of  all 
who  had  known  him,  or  even  heard  his  name.  He  was 
honourably  entombed,  as  his  high  deserts  had  well  merited 
that  he  should  be,  having  been  beloved  by  all  in  his  life, 
but  more  especially  by  the  eminent  men  of  all  professions. 
Of  Dante  we  have  already  spoken  as  his  intimate  friend ; 
his  character  and  talents  were  equally  admired  by  Petrarch, 
insomuch  that  this  last  poet,  as  we  read  in  his  testament, 
bequeathed  to  Francesco  da  Carrara,  Lord  of  Padua,  among 
other  things  which  he  highly  valued,  a  picture  of  the  Virgin 
by  Giotto,"^^  as  a  rare  and  acceptable  gift,  which  is  thus  dis- 
tinguished in  that  clause  of  the  will  which  relates  to  it : — 

"  Transeo  ad  dispositionem  aliarum  rerum ;  et  prsedicto  igitnr 
domino  meo  Paduano,  quia  et  ipse  i^er  Dei  gratiam  non  eget,  et 
ego  nihil  aliud  habeo  dignum  se,  mitto  tabulam  meam  sive  histo- 
riam  Beatao  Virginis  Maria3,  opus  Jocti  pictoris  egregii,  qnre  mihi 
ab  amico  meo  Michaele  Vannis  de  Floientia  missa  est,  in  cujus 
puchritudinem  ignorantes  non  intelligunt,  magistri  autem  artia 
stupent :  lianc  iconem  i-psi  domino  lego,  ut  ipsa  Virgo  benedicta 
eibi  sit  propitia  apud  filium  suum  Jesum  Christum,"  etc. 

Petrarch  further  remarks,  in  a  Latin  epistle  to  be  found  in 
the  fifth  book  of  his  familiar  letters,  to  the  following  effect : 

"  Atque  (ut  a  veteribus  ad  nova,  ab  externis  ad  nostra  trans- 
grediar)  duos  ego  novi  pictores  egregios,  nec  formosos,  Jottum 
Florentinum  civem,  cujus  inter  modernos  fama  ingens  est,  et 
Simonem  Senensem,  novi  scultores  aliquot,"  etc. 

Giotto  was  buried  in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  where  an  in- 
scription on  white  marble  to  the  memory  of  this  great  man 
was  placed  on  the  wall  to  the  left  of  the  entrance.  The 
commentator  of  Dante,  who  was  contemporary  with  Giotto, 
has  spoken  of  him,  as  we  have  related  in  the  life  of  Cima- 
bue,  in  the  following  words  :  Giotto  was  and  is  the  most 
eminent  of  all  the  painters  in  the  city  of  Florence,  and  to 

This  picture  is  lost. 


76  GlOTTO 

this  his  works  bear  testimony  in  Kome,  Naples,  Avignon, 
Florence,  Padua,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  world/' 

Giotto,  as  we  have  said  before,  was  of  an  exceedingly 
jocund  humour,  and  abounded  in  witty  and  humorous 
remarks,  which  are  still  well  remembered  in  Florence. 
Examples  of  these  may  be  found,  not  only  in  the  writings 
of  Messer  Giovanni  Boccaccio,  but  also  in  the  three  hundred 
stories  of  Franco  Sacchetti,  who  cites  many  amusing  in- 
stances of  his  talent  in  this  way.  And  here  I  will  not  re- 
fuse the  labour  of  transcribing  some  of  these  stories,  giving 
them  in  Franco's  own  words,  that  my  readers  may  be 
made  acquainted  with  the  peculiar  phraseology  and  modes 
of  speech  used  in  those  times,  together  with  the  story  it- 
self. He  says,  then,  in  one  of  these,  to  set  it  forth  with  its 
proper  title  : 

"  To  Giotto,  the  great  painter ,  is  given  a  buckler  to  paint, 
by  a  man  of  small  account.  He,  making  a  jest  of  the  matter, 
'paints  it  in  such  sort,  that  the  owner  is  put  out  of  counte- 
nance. 

'''Every  one  has  long  since  heard  of  Giotto,  and  knows 
how  greatly  he  stood  above  all  other  painters.  Hearing  the 
fame  of  this  master,  a  rude  artizan,  who  desired  to  have  his 
buckler  painted,  perhaps  because  he  was  going  to  do  watch 
and  ward  in  some  castle,  marched  at  once  to  the  work-shop 
of  Giotto,  with  one  bearing  the  shield  behind  him.  Having 
got  there,  he  speedily  found  Giotto,  to  whom  he  said,  God 
save  thee,  master  !  I  would  fain  have  thee  paint  me  my 
arms  on  this  shield.'  Giotto,  having  examined  the  man  and 
considered  his  manner,  replied  nothing  more  than — '  When 

'2  It  is  the  custom  in  Florence  on  the  first  Sunday  of  the  month  for  men  and 
women  to  go  together  to  San  Gallo  rather  for  pleasure  than  for  devotion. 
On  one  of  these  Sundays  Giotto,  who  was  on  his  way  there  with  his  friends, 
while  telling  a  certain  story,  stopped  in  the  Via  Del  Cocomero.  Some  of  St.  An- 
thony's pigs  were  passing  at  the  time,  and  one  of  them  ran  between  his  legs  and 
threw  him  down.  When  Giotto,  with  the  help  of  his  friends,  had  picked  him- 
self up,  he  shook  himself,  and  without  cursing  the  pigs  or  saying  a  word 
against  them,  turned  to  his  companions  and  half  smiling  said  :  "Are  they  not 
right,  when  I  have  earned  in  my  day  thousands  of  crowns  with  their  bristles 
and  I  have  never  given  them  even  a  bowl  of  soup."  Sacchetti,  Novella  LXXV. 


GIOTTO 


77 


wilt  thou  have  it  finished  ? '  which  the  other  having  told 
him,  he  answered,  '  Leave  the  matter  to  me  ; '  and  the  fel- 
low departed.  Then  Giotto,  being  left  alone,  began  to 
think  within  himself,  '  What  may  this  mean  ?  Hath  some 
one  sent  this  man  to  make  a  jest  of  me  ?  However  it  be, 
no  man  ever  before  brought  me  a  buckler  to  paint ;  yet  here 
is  this  simple  fellow,  who  brings  me  his  shield,  and  bids  me 
paint  his  arms  upon  it,  as  though  he  were  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily of  France.  Of  a  verity,  I  must  make  him  arms  of  a  new 
fashion.^  Thinking  thus  within  himself,  he  takes  the  said 
buckler,  and  having  designed  what  he  thought  proper, 
called  one  of  his  scholars,  and  bade  him  complete  the  paint- 
ing. This  was  a*  tin  skull-cap,  a  gorget, f  a  pair  of  iron 
gauntlets,  with  a  cuirass,  cuishes  and  gambadoes,  a  sword,  a 
dagger,  and  a  spear.  Our  great  personage,  of  whom  nobody 
knew  anything,  having  returned  for  his  shield,  marches 
forward  and  inquires,  ^Master,  is  this  shield  painted?' 

*  To  be  sure  it  is,'  replied  Giotto ;  '  bring  it  down  here.'  The 
shield  being  brought,  our  wise  gentleman  that-would-be, 
began  to  open  his  eyes  and  look  at  it,  calling  out  to  Giotto, 
'  What  trumpery  is  this  that  thou  hast  painted  me  here  ? ' 

*  Will  it  seem  to  thee  a  trumpery  matter  to  pay  for  it  ? ' 
answered  Giotto.  '  I  will  not  pay  five  farthings  for  it  all,' 
returned  the  clown.  *  And  what  didst  thou  require  me  to 
paint,'  asked  Giotto.  '  My  arms.'  '  And  are  they  not  here,' 
rejoined  tlie  painter;  'is  there  one  wanting?'  *  Good, 
good  ! '  quoth  the  man.  '  Nay,  verily,  but  'tis  rather  bad, 
bad  ! '  responded  Giotto.  *  Lord  help  thee,  for  thou  must 
needs  be  a  special  simpleton  :  why,  if  a  man  were  to  ask 
thee,  "  who  art  thou  ?  "  'twould  be  a  hard  matter  for  thee  to 
tell  him ;  yet  here  thou  comest  and  criest,  "  paint  me  my 
arms."  If  thou  wert  of  the  house  of  the  Bardi,  that  were 
enough ;  but  thou  ! — what  arms  dost  thou  bear  ?  who  art 
thou  ?  who  were  thy  forefathers  ?  Art  thou  not  ashamed  of 
thyself  !    Begin  at  least  to  come  into  the  world  before  thou 

*  Read  a  steel  skull-cap. 

t  Intercalate  "  a  pair  of  arm-pieces,"  omitted  by  translator. 


78 


GIOTTO 


talkest  of  arms,  as  thongh  thou  wert  Dusnam  of  Bavaria  at 
the  very  least.  I  have  made  thee  a  whole  suit  of  armour  on 
thy  shield  :  if  there  be  any  other  piece,  tell  me,  and  Til  put 
that  too.'  ^Thou  hast  given  me  rough  words,  and  hast 
spoiled  my  shield,'  declared  the  other  ;  and  going  forth,  he 
betook  himself  to  the  justice,  before  whom  he  caused  Giotto 
to  be  called.  The  latter  forthwith  appeared ;  but  on  his 
side  summoned  the  complainant  for  two  florins,  the  price 
of  the  painting,  and  which  he  demands  to  be  paid.  The 
pleadings  being  heard  on  both  sides,  and  Giotto's  story 
being  much  better  told  than  that  of  our  clown,  the  judges 
decided  that  the  latter  should  take  away  his  buckler,  painted 
as  it  was,  and  should  pay  six  livres  to  Giotto,  whom  they  de- 
clared to  have  the  right.  Thus  the  good  man  had  to  pay  and 
to  take  his  shield  ;  whereupon  he  was  bidden  to  depart,  and 
not  knowing  his  place,  had  it  taught  to  him  on  this  wise." 

It  is  said  that  Giotto,  when  he  was  still  a  boy,  and  study- 
ing with  Cimabue,  once  painted  a  fly  on  the  nose  of  a  figure 
on  which  Cimabue  himself  was  employed,  and  this  so  natu- 
rally, that  when  the  master  returned  to  continue  his  work, 
he  believed  it  to  be  real,  and  lifted  his  hand  more  than  once 
to  drive  it  away  before  he  should  go  on  with  the  painting. 
Many  other  jests  and  witty  retorts  might  be  recorded  of 
Giotto ;  but  these,  which  appertain  to  art,  shall  suffice  me 
to  tell  in  this  place ;  and  for  the  rest  I  refer  my  reader  to 
Franco  and  other  writers. 

The  memory  of  Giotto  is  not  only  preserved  in  his  own 
works,  but  is  also  consecrated  in  the  writings  of  the  authors 
of  those  times,  he  being  the  master  by  whom  the  true  art 
of  painting  was  recovered,  after  it  had  been  lost  during  many 
years  preceding  his  time  :  wherefore,  by  a  public  decree,  and 
by  command  of  the  elder  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  of  glorious 
memory,  who  bore  him  a  particular  affection,  and  greatly 
admired  the  talent  of  this  distinguished  man,  his  bust  was 
placed  in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  being  sculptured  in  marble 
by  Benedetto  da  Majano,  an  excellent  sculptor,  and  the  fol- 
lowing verses,  by  that  divine  poet,  Messer  Angelo  Poliziano, 


GIOTTO 


79 


were  engraved  thereon,  to  the  end,  that  all  who  should  dis- 
tinguish themselves  in  any  profession  might  have  hope  of 
receiving  such  memorials  at  the  hands  of  others,  his  succes- 
sors, as  Giotto  deserved  and  received  from  the  hands  of  Lo- 
renzo : — 

Ille  ego  sum,  per  quern  pictura  extinta  revixit, 
Cui  quam  recta  manus,  tarn  fuit  et  facilis 

NatursB  deerat  nostrae  quod  defuit  arti : 
Plus  licuit  nulli  pingere,  nec  melius 

Miraris  turrim  egregiam  sacro  aere  sonantem  ? 
Haec  quoque  de  modulo  crevit  ad  astra  meo, 

Denique  sum  Jottus,  quid  opus  fuit  ilia  ref erre  ? 
Hoc  nomen  longi  carminis  instar  erit. 

And  that  those  who  shall  come  after,  may  better  know  the 
excellence  of  this  great  man,  and  may  judge  him  from  draw- 
ings by  his  own  hand,"^  there  are  some  that  are  wonderfully 

'3  From  the  beginning  of  modern  art  until  the  time  of  its  culmination,  under 
Raphael,  Leonardo,  and  Michelangelo,  Giotto  and  Masaccio  stand  as  the  two 
great  masters  of  painting.  As  a  dramatic  painter  and  as  a  master  of  com- 
position Giotto  rose  so  high  above  his  contemporaries,  pupils,  and  followers 
that  for  a  hundred  years  no  real  advance  upon  his  works  was  made.  In 
power  of  invention  also  he  surpassed  his  contemporaries.  In  purely  technical 
qualities,  saving  always  his  capacity  for  composition,  he  did  not  greatly  over- 
step the  limits  of  his  age. 

His  faces  usually  resemble  each  other,  and  are  constructed  on  the  same  lines, 
with  elongated  eyes,  short,  straight,  rather  snub  noses  and  very  full  chins,  in 
a  type  having  its  regular  variation  suited  to  the  differences  of  age  and  sex. 
At  rare  intervals,  as  in  the  face  of  Elizabeth  (the  Visitation,"  Arena  chapel, 
Padua),  he  rises  to  wonderful  individuality  and  intensity  of  expression.  His 
hands  and  feet  are  weak,  the  latter  often  standing  upon  the  points  of 
^  the  toes,  more  often  still  being  hidden  under  drapery.  The  heads  and  bodies 
are  round,  short,  robust,  and  peasant-like. 

His  draperies  are  admirable  ;  his  art  cannot  yet  achieve  their  realistic  rep- 
resentation, but  he  generalises  them  nobly,  using  few,  large,  and  simple  folds, 
which  satisfactorily,  indeed  wonderfully  for  the  time,  express  the  movements 
of  the  wearers.  His  animals  are  too  small ;  his  architecture  supported  by  long 
attenuated  columns,  indicates  rather  than  realises  locality.  His  landscape  is 
in  the  same  degree  a  suggestion,  like  the  simple  stage  settings  of  Elizabethan 
times,  but  it  is  an  immense  advance  upon  what  had  gone  before  him.  His 
colof  is  light  in  key,  eminently  harmonious  and  thoroughly  decorative.  It  is 
however  a  mistake  to  say  that  it  is  a  complete  departure  from  the  Byzantine 
color  of  Cimabue  and  earlier  masters,  since  the  frescoes  of  Cimabue  and  Giunta 


80 


GIOTTO 


beantif nl  preserved  in  my  book  above-mentioned,  and  which 
I  have  collected  with  great  diligence,  as  well  as  with  much 
labour  and  expense. 

in  the  upper  church  of  Assisi,  present  some  of  the  most  delicately  rich  and 
colored  eflFects  to  be  found  in  Italy,  and  this  decorative  effect  with  Cimabue,  as 
with  Giotto,  was  caused  by  the  use  of  relatively  flat  tints  and  the  avoidance  of 
over  modelling.  On  the  whole  Giotto's  two  supreme  attributes  are  his  intense 
dramatic  feeling  and  his  almost  unrivalled  sense  of  compositioa. 


ANDREA  PISANO/  SCULPTOR  AND  ARCHITECT. 


[Born  about  1270  ;  died  1348.] 

Bibliography. — Le  Tre  Porte  del  Battiatero  di  San  Giovanni  di  Firenze 
incise  ed  illustrate.  Florence,  1821.  Gruner,  Marmor-Bildwerke  der  Schiile 
der  Pisaner,  1858.  Marcel  Reymond,  La  Sculpture  Florentine  aux  XlVme 
et  XVme  siMes,  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,  1893-4.  See  the  same  author, 
Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  74,  p.  395,  for  an  Fssai  de  clarification  chron- 
ologique  des  ceuvres  de  sculpture  Florentine  du  XlVme  si^cle. 

THE  art  of  painting  has  at  no  time  been  flourishing, 
without  the  sculptors  also  making  admirable  progress 
in  their  art  at  the  same  moment ;  and  whoever  will  ob- 
serve closely,  shall  find  the  works  of  all  ages  bearing  testimony 
to  the  truth  of  this  remark.  And  of  a  surety  these  two  arts 
are  sisters,  born  at  the  same  period,  nourished  and  guided 
by  the  same  spirit.  A  proof  of  this  is  presented  by  Andrea 
Pisano,  who,  devoting  himself  to  sculpture  as  Giotto  did  to 
painting,  effected  so  important  an  amelioration  in  the  art, 
both  as  to  practice  and  theory,  that  he  was  esteemed  the 
best  master  that  the  Tuscans  had  ever  possessed.  Andrea 
was  most  especially  celebrated  for  his  castings  in  bronze, 
and  was,  on  this  account,  highly  honoured  by  all,  but  more 
particularly  by  the  Florentines,  by  whom  his  works  were  so 
largely  remunerated,  that  he  did  not  scruple  to  change  his 
country,  his  connexions,  his  property,  and  his  friends. 
The  difficulties  encountered  by  the  masters  in  sculpture 
who  had  preceded  him,  were  of  infinite  advantage  to 
Andrea,  since  the  works  of  those  artists  were  so  rude  and 
common-place,  that  those  of  the  Pisan  were  esteemed  a  mir- 

>  flis  name  was  Andrea  di  Ugolino  di  Nino ;  he  was  born  at  Pontedera  in 
1270,  and  being  the  son  of  a  notary  of  Pisa,  has  been  known  as  Andrea 
Pisano. 

6 


82 


ANDREA  PISANO 


acle.^  And  that  these  earlier  sculptures  were  indeed 
coarse,  is  clearly  shown,  as  we  have  said  elsewhere,  by 
those  over  the  principal  door  of  San  Paolo,  in  Florence,  as 
well  as  by  some  in  stone,  which  are  in  the  church  of  Ognis- 
santi ;  and  are  better  calculated  to  excite  ridicule,  than  ad- 
miration or  pleasure,  ^  in  those  who  examine  them.  It  is, 
however,  certain,  that  if  the  art  of  sculpture  incur  the 
danger  of  losing  its  vitality,  there  is  always  less  difficulty  in 
its  restoration  than  in  that  of  painting,  the  former  having 
ever  the  living  and  natural  model,  in  the  rounded  forms 
which  are  such  as  she  requires,  while  the  latter  cannot  so 
lightly  recover  the  pure  outlines  and  correct  manner  de- 
manded for  her  works,  and  from  which  alone  the  labours 
of  the  painter  derive  majesty,  beauty,  and  grace.  Fortune 
was  in  other  respects  favourable  to  Andrea,  many  relics  of 
antiquity  having  been  collected  in  Pisa  by  the  fleets  of  that 
city,  as  results  of  their  frequent  victories  ;  and  from  these, 
which  still  remain,  as  we  have  said,  about  the  cathedral  and 
Campo  Santo,  the  sculptor  Andrea  obtained  such  instruc- 
tion, and  derived  such  light,  as  could  by  no  means  be 
obtained  by  the  painter  Giotto,  since  the  ancient  paintings 
had  not  been  preserved  as  the  sculptures  had  been.  And 
although  statues  are  often  destroyed  by  fires,  ruined  by  the 
furies  of  war,  buried,  or  transported  to  distant  lands,  yet, 
whoever  understands  the  subject  thoroughly  can  readily  dis- 
tinguish the  difference  which  exists  in  the  manner  of  differ- 
ent countries ;  as,  for  example,  that  of  the  Egyptians — 
marked  by  the  length  and  attenuation  of  the  figures — from 
the  Greek,  displaying  knowledge  and  deep  study  of  the  nude 
form,  but  with  heads  which  have  almost  all  the  same  expres- 
sion ;  from  the  ancient  Tuscan,  somewhat  rude,  but  careful 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  hair  ;  and,  finally,  from  that  of 
the  Eomans  (I  call  those  Eomans,  who,  after  the  subjuga- 

2  This  is  an  exaggeration,  for  he  was  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Pisano  and  knew 
his  works  well. 

3  These  sculptures  in  San  Paolo  and  the  Ognissanti  have  disappeared,  but 
Andrea  had  seen  and  studied  the  admirable  works  of  Niccola  and  Giovanni 
Pisano. 


ANDREA  PISANO 


83 


tion  of  Greece,  repaired  to  Rome,  whither  all  that  was  good 
and  beautiful  in  the  whole  world  was  then  transported), 
which  last  is  so  admirable,  whether  as  regards  the  expres- 
sion, the  attitudes,  or  the  movements  of  the  figures,  draped 
or  nude,  that  the  Romans  may  truly  be  said  to  have  gathered 
the  best  qualities  of  all  other  methods  and  united  them  in 
their  own,  to  the  end  that  this  might  be  superior  to  all, 
nay,  absolutely  divine,  as  it  is.^  i 

But  all  of  good  and  pure  in  art  being  extinct  in  the  time 
of  Andrea,  that  manner  only  was  in  use  which  had  been 
brought  into  Tuscany  by  the  Goths  and  uncultivated  modern 
Greeks.  It  was  on  this  then,  that  Andrea  brought  his  more 
accurate  taste  and  finer  judgment  to  bear :  studying  the  few 
antiquities  known  to  him,  carefully  profiting  by  Giotto's 
new  method  in  design,  and  ultimately  diminishing  to  a 
great  extent  the  coarseness  of  the  infelicitous  manner  then 
prevalent,  he  began  to  work  in  a  much  improved  style,  and 
to  give  greater  beauty  to  his  productions  than  had  been  at- 
tained by  any  other  sculptor  previous  to  that  time.  The 
talent  possessed  by  Andrea  becoming  known,  his  compatri- 
ots readily  gave  him  encouragement,  and  he  was  employed, 
while  still  very  young,  to  execute  certain  small  figures  in 
marble,  for  Santa  Maria  a  Ponte.^  By  these  he  obtained  so 
high  a  reputation,  that  he  received  a  pressing  invitation  to 
Florence,  there  to  co-operate  in  the  labours  then  in  progress 
for  the  construction  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore.  The  princi- 
pal fa9ade  of  this  building,  with  its  three  doors,  had  been  • 
commenced,  but  there  was  a  dearth  of  masters  to  execute 
the  sculptures  which  Giotto  had  designed  when  the  church 
was  founded.  The  Florentines  therefore  engaged  Andrea 
Pisano  for  this  work  ;  and  as  they  were  at  that  time  anxious 
to  render  themselves  acceptable  to  Pope  Boniface  VIII., 
who  wa^p  then  head  of  the  Christian  Church,  they  deter- 
mined that  before  anything  else  was  done,  the  portrait  of 
his  holiness  should  be  drawn  from  nature,  and  sculptured  in 

*  Few  will  concur  with  Vasari's  criticism. 
6  These  works  are  lost. 


84  ANDREA  PISANO 

marble  by  Andrea.  Thereupon  he  put  his  hand  to  the 
work,  and  did  not  rest  until  he  had  completed  the  statue  of 
the  pope,  with  St.  Peter  on  one  side  of  him  and  St.  Paul  on 
the  other,  when  these  three  figures  were  placed  on  the  fa- 
9ade  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  where  they  still  remain. 
Andrea  next  prepared  certain  small  figures  of  the  prophets, 
in  tabernacles  or  niches,  for  the  central  door,  when  it  be- 
came obvious  that  he  had  effected  important  ameliorations 
in  the  art,  and  was  greatly  in  advance  of  all  who  had  laboured 
for  that  fabric  before  him.  It  was  therefore  determined 
that  all  works  of  importance  should  be  confided  to  him,  and 
to  no  other.  He  was,  accordingly,  soon  afterwards  appointed 
to  execute  the  four  statues  of  the  principal  doctors  of  the 
Church — St.  Jerome,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  and  St. 
Gregory ;  and  these  figures,  being  finished,  acquired  great 
favour  and  high  reputation  for  the  artist,  not  only  from  the 
superintendents  of  the  work,  but  from  the  whole  city  ;  and 
two  other  statues  in  marble,  of  the  same  size,  were  entrusted 
to  his  care  :  these  were  St.  Stephen  and  St.  Lawrence,  which 
were  also  placed  on  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  and 
stood  on  the  outer  angles.®  The  Madonna,  of  marble,  three 
braccia  and  a  half  high,  with  the  Child  in  her  arms,  which 
stands  on  the  altar  of  the  little  church  belonging  to  the 
company  of  the  Misericordia,  on  the  piazza  of  San  Giovanni 
in  Florence,  is  also  by  Andrea.  This  work  was  highly  com- 
mended in  that  day,  and  more  particularly  for  the  two 
angels,  two  braccia  and  a  half  in  height,  which  stand  on 
each  side  of  the  Virgin.'    The  whole  has  been  surrounded 

«  The  facade  was  destroyed  in  1586  when  two-thirds  finished,  and  the 
statues  were  dispersed ;  several  of  these,  among  them  the  Boniface  VEtl. ,  are 
now  in  the  Oricellari  gardens.  The  four  Doctors  of  the  church  were  trans- 
formed into  poets  and  placed  at  the  opening  of  the  Poggio  Imperiale,  but  the 
documents  cited  by  Milanesi  mention  no  statues  for  the/af  acie  executed  earlier 
than  1357;  it  is  therefore  improbable  that  any  of  these  were  the  work  of 
Andrea.  M.  Marcel  Reymond  ( Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts)  thinks  that  these  four 
statues  postdate  1400,  as  do  those  in  the  courtyard  of  the  Riccardi  Palace, 
Florence. 

7  Not  by  Andrea,  but  by  Alberto  Arnoldi,  who  worked  on  Giotto's  Campan- 
ile and  afterwards  rose  to  be  Capo-maestro  of  the  Duomo.    The  contract  was 


ANDREA  PISANO 


85 


in  onr  own  days  by  some  very  well-executed  carvings  in 
wood,  from  the  hand  of  Maestro  Antonio,  called  II  Carota ; 
while  the  predella  beneath  is  covered  with  admirable  figures, 
painted  in  oil,  by  Eidolfo,  son  of  Domenico  Grhirlandajo. 
The  Virgin,  in  marble  (half-length),  which  is  over  the  lat- 
eral door  of  the  Misericordia,^  in  the  fagade  of  the  Cialdonai, 
is  also  by  Andrea,  who  was  highly  commended  for  this  work, 
in  which,  contrary  to  his  custom,  he  imitated  the  pure  man- 
ner of  the  antique,  from  which  he  generally  differed  widely  ; 
a  fact  rendered  manifest  by  some  drawings  in  my  own  book, 
wherein  he  has  depicted  the  whole  history  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse. 

Andrea  Pisano  had  given  some  attention  to  architecture  in 
his  youth  ;  and  the  commune  of  Florence  found  occasion  to 
employ  him  in  that  art,  when,  Arnolf  o  being  dead,  and  Giotto 
absent,  they  selected  him  to  prepare  designs  for  the  castle 
of  Scarperia*  situate  in  the  Mugello,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps. 
Some  affirm,  but  I  will  not  vouch  for  the  truth  of  the  asser- 
tion, that  Andrea  passed  a  year  in  Venice,  where  he  execut- 
ed, in  sculpture,  certain  small  marble  figures,  which  are  to 
be  seen  on  the  facade  of  St.  Mark.  They  further  declare, 
that  in  the  time  of  Messer  Pietro  Gradenigo,  doge  of  that 
republic,  Andrea  prepared  the  designs  for  the  arsenal,  but 
as  I  have  no  high  authority  to  offer  on  this  subject,  I  leave 

given  (according  to  Perkins)  June  13,  1359.  The  wood  carvings  were  by 
Noferi  d'  Antonio  di  Noferi,  1515,  and  not  by  il  Carota.  Arnoldi  and  Fr. 
Talenti  executed  the  main  door  of  the  cathedral,  1359.  The  Madonna  for  this 
door,  now  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  is  by  an  unknown  sculptor. 

8  This  work,  executed  in  1361,  is  now  known  to  be  by  Alberto  Arnoldi.  It 
is  still  on  the  exterior  of  the  Bigallo.  M.  Marcel  Reymond,  in  the  Gazette 
des  Beaux  Arts,  1893,  considers  that  the  scenes  from  Genesis  in  the  facade  of 
the  cathedral  of  Orvieto  are  directly  and  strongly  influenced  by  Andrea  Pisano. 
In  his  interesting  series  of  articles  M.  Reymond  enthusiastically  defends  the 
originality  of  fourteenth  century  sculpture,  declaring  that  "  in  its  triumphal 
march  down  the  fourteenth  century  Florentine  sculpture  never  once  looked 
towards  Rome,  but  rather  walked  hand  in  hand  with  French  sculpture." 
He  claims  the  French  sculpture  as  the  real  genesis  of  the  early  Italian 
work. 

»  The  plans  were  ordered  by  the  Republic  in  1306,  but  the  documents  do  not 
mention  Andrea's  name. 


86  ANDREA  PISANO 

each  one  to  form  his  own  opinion  respecting  it.^°  When 
Andrea  returned  from  Venice  to  Florence,  the  latter  city 
was  in  great  fear  of  the  emperor,  whose  arrival  was  daily 
expected  ;  the  citizens  therefore  employed  Andrea  in  great 
haste  to  raise  their  walls  eight  braccia  higher  in  that  portion 
of  them  which  lies  between  St.  Gallo  and  the  gate  of  the 
Prato.^^  He  was  also  commanded  to  construct  bastions, 
stockades,  and  other  strong  defences,  both  in  wood  and 
earth-work.  Three  years  previous  to  this,  Andrea  had  ac- 
quired great  honor  by  the  execution  of  a  cross  in  bronze, 
which  he  had  sent  to  the  pope  in  Avignon,  by  his  intimate 
friend  Giotto,  who  was  then  at  that  court. He  was,  con- 
sequently, now  appointed  to  execute  one  of  the  doors  for  the 
church  of  San  Giovanni  of  Florence,  for  which  Giotto  had 
given  a  most  beautiful  design. This  he  was  employed  to 
complete,  I  say,  as  being  considered — among  all  the  many 
who  had  hitherto  laboured  at  that  fabric — the  most  able, 
practiced,  and  judicious  master,  not  of  Tuscany  only,  but  of 
all  Italy.  Hereupon  he  set  himself  to  work  with  the  firm 
resolve  to  spare  neither  time,  labour,  nor  care,  that  this  im- 
portant undertaking  might  be  successfully  completed  ;  and 
fortune  was  so  propitious  to  his  efforts,  that  although  in 
those  times  they  possessed  none  of  the  secrets  in  the  art  of 
casting  with  which  we  are  now  acquainted,  yet  in  twenty- 
two  years  the  work  was  brought  to  that  perfection  in  which 
we  see  it.^^   N"ay,  more,  within  this  same  period  the  master 

10  Documents  confirm  Andrea  as  designer  of  the  arsenal,  and  the  existing 
statuettes  of  San  Marco  are  apparently  his  handiwork. 

11  This  work  was  finished  in  1316. 

12  Milanesi  ascribes  this  bronze  crucifix  to  a  Florentine  goldsmith,  Andrea 
Arditi. 

18  In  1330-1336. 

1*  In  1329  the  ConsoU  Arte  decided  that  the  Baptistery  should  have  doors 
of  metal  "as  fine  as  could  be  made."  They  sent  Piero  d'  Jacopo,  a  goldsmith, 
to  Pisa  to  inspect  the  bronze  gates  there,  and  to  Venice  to  find  a  sculptor  who 
should  design  a  pair  of  them  for  San  Giovanni.  No  sculptor  being  found  in 
Venice  who  seemed  worthy  of  the  task,  the  consuls  gave  the  commission  in 
1330  to  Andrea  Pisano.  The  gates  were  finished  in  1332  and  imperfectly  cast 
in  the  same  year  by  a  Venetian.  Andrea  was  obliged  to  recast  them  himself, 
and  completed  them  in  1336.    See  Milanesi,  I.  487,  Note  3. 


ANDREA  PISANO 


87 


not  only  executed  the  tabernacle  of  the  high  altar  of  St. 
John/^  with  the  angels  standing  one  on  each  side  of  it,  which 
are  considered  extremely  beautiful,  but  also  completed,  after 
the  designs  of  Griotto,  those  small  figures  in  marble  which 
adorn  the  door  of  the  campanile  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore ; 
while  around  the  tower  he  placed  the  seven  planets,  the 
seven  virtues,  and  the  seven  works  of  mercy,  in  oval  com- 
partments, and  represented  by  small  figures  in  mezzo-rilievo 
which  were  then  very  much  praised.  Andrea  further  exe- 
cuted, within  the  above-named  period,  the  three  figures, 
each  four  braccia  high,  which  were  placed  in  the  recesses 
beneath  the  windows  of  the  same  campanile,  looking  towards 
the  orphan  house,^'^  on  the  southern  side  that  is  to  say,  and 
which  were  at  that  time  considered  to  be  very  well  done. 
But  to  return  to  the  point  whence  I  departed.  In  the 
bronze  door  which  I  was  describing,  are  represented  stories 
from  the  life  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  basso-rilievo  ;  they 
extend  from  his  birth  to  his  death,  and  are  very  happily  and 
carefully  executed.  And  although  many  are  of  opinion  tliat 
this  work  does  not  exhibit  the  beauty  of  design  and  perfec- 
tion of  art  required  for  such  figures,  yet  is  Andrea  deserv- 
ing of  the  highest  praise  for  having  been  the  first  to  attempt 
and  bring  to  completion  an  undertaking  which  rendered  it 
possible  to  those  who  came  after  him  to  produce  the  beauti- 

"5  This  altar  was  broken  up  in  1732,  and  the  fragments  passed  through  vari- 
ous hands,  but  the  tabernacle  is  not  now  believed  to  have  been  by  Andrea  ;  it 
was  executed  in  1313,  as  is  proved  by  the  books  of  the  Arte  di  Calimala  for 
that  year. 

'«  Perkins  (Historical  Hand-book  of  Italian  Sculpture,  p.  37)  finds  them  : 
"Giottesque  only  so  far  as  they  are  conceived  in  the  naturalistic  spirit  of  the 
Florentine,  rather  than  in  the  old  classical  spirit  of  the  Pisan  school."  He 
believes  that  had  it  not  been  for  tradition  we  should  not  think  at  all  of  Giotto 
as  a  co-operator  in  their  execution,  Mr.  Ruskin's  poetic  descriptions  have 
helped  to  make  these  reliefs  famous ;  some  of  them  are  very  fine  in  their 
simplicity  and  directness. 

1'  This  building,  the  Bigallo,  now  belongs  to  the  confraternity  of  the  Miseri- 
cordia.  According  to  M.  Marcel  Raymond,  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,  1803,  the 
four  statues,  among  them  the  Tiburtine  and  Erythraean  Sibyls,  once  on  the 
west  side,  and  now  on  the  north  side  of  the  Campanile,  are  by  Andrea  Pisano, 
and  a  small  statue  of  Santa  Reparata  by  him  is  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo. 


88 


ANDREA  PISANO 


ful  and  arduous  works  which  we  admire  in  the  remaining 
two  doors,  and  in  the  other  exterior  ornaments  of  the  build- 
ing. The  work  of  Andrea  was  placed  in  the  central  door  of 
the  church,  where  it  remained  until  Lorenzo  Grhiberti  exe- 
cuted that  which  is  now  in  its  place,  when  it  was  removed 
and  fixed  opposite  to  the  Misericordia,  where  it  is  still  to  be 
seen.  I  will  not  omit  to  mention,  that  Andrea  was  assisted 
in  the  construction  of  this  door  by  his  son  Nino,  who  after- 
wards became  a  much  better  master  than  his  father.  The 
final  completion  of  this  work  took  place  in  1339,^^  when  it 
was  not  only  furbished  and  polished,  but  also  gilded  in  fire, 
the  casting  of  the  metal  being  accomplished,  as  is  reported, 
by  certain  Venetian  masters,  who  were  very  expert  in  the 
founding  of  metals.  Records  on  this  subject  are  to  be  found 
in  the  books  belonging  to  the  guild  of  the  merchants  of  the 
Calimala,  who  were  wardens  of  the  works  for  the  church  of 
San  Giovanni.  While  this  door  was  in  progress,  Andrea 
not  only  completed  the  works  which  we  have  named  above, 
but  many  others  also,  more  particularly  the  model  for  the 
church  of  San  Giovanni  at  Pistoja,  which  was  founded  in 
the  year  1337.^*  It  was  in  the  same  year,  and  on  the  twenty- 
fifth  day  of  January,  that  the  relics  of  the  Beato  Atto,  for- 
merly bishop  of  the  city,  were  discovered  while  digging  the 
foundations  of  the  church.  This  prelate  had  been  entombed 
in  that  place  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  years  previ- 
ously. The  architecture  of  the  church  is  round,^  and  was 
tolerably  good  for  those  times.  There  is  a  marble  tomb  in 
the  principal  church  of  Pistoja,  which  is  also  by  Andrea. 
The  sarcophagus  is  covered  with  small  figures,  with  others 
of  larger  size  above  it :  the  body  reposing  in  it  is  that  of 
Messer  Oino  d^Angibolgi,  doctor  of  laws,  and  one  of  the 
famous  literati  of  his  time,  as  we  find  proved  by  Messer 
Francesco  Petrarca,  in  his  sonnet  beginning — 

*'  Weep,  ladies  fair,  and  love  may  with  you  weep," 

>8  In  1336  rather.  '» In  1300. 

20  Octagonal. 


AKDREA  PISANO 


89 


and  also  in  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  ^'  Triumph  of  Love," 
where  he  says — 

"  See  Cino  of  Pistoja — who,  from  Guy, 
Of  fair  Arezzo,  claims  the  foremost  place,"  etc. 

The  portrait  of  this  Messer  Cino,  from  the  hand  of 
Andrea  Pisano,  is  placed  on  the  tomb,  where  he  is  depicted 
teaching  a  number  of  his  scholars,  who  stand  around  him  in 
attitudes  of  so  much  grace  and  beauty,  that  in  his  day  they 
must  have  been  thought  something  wonderful,  even  though 
they  should  not  be  greatly  admired  in  ours.^^ 

Gualtieri,  duke  of  Athens,  and  tyrant  of  Florence,  also 
profited  by  the  services  of  Andrea  for  his  architectural  un- 
dertakings, causing  him  to  enlarge  the  piazza,  and,  desiring 
to  render  himself  more  secure  in  his  palace,  he  had  a  very 
strong  grating  of  iron  bars  placed  on  all  the  windows  of  the 
first  floor  (where  the  hall  of  the  Two  Hundred  now  is). 
The  same  duke  erected  the  walls  in  rustic  masonry  which 
were  added  to  the  palace,  on  the  side  opposite  to  San 
Scheraggio  ;  *  and  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  he  made  a 
secret  stair,  by  which  he  could  ascend  or  descend  without 
being  observed.  In  this  wall  he  also  placed  a  large  door, 
which  now  serves  as  the  entrance  to  the  custom-house,  and 
over  the  door  he  carved  his  arms,  all  which  was  completed 
after  the  designs  and  by  the  advice  of  Andrea.  These 
arms  were  subsequently  effaced  by  the  Council  of  Twelve, 
those  magistrates  desiring  to  destroy  all  remembrance  of 
the  duke.  The  form  of  a  lion  rampant,  with  double  tail, 
may  nevertheless  be  still  discerned  by  whosoever  will  exam- 
ine the  shield  carefully.  Andrea  Pisano  erected  many  tow- 
ers around  the  circuit  of  the  city  walls  for  the  same  duke, 
and  not  only  commenced  the  magnificent  church  f  of  San 

*  San  Piero  Scheraggio,  the  old  basilica  which  once  occupied  the  site  of  the 
Ufl&zi, 

t  A  mistranslation  :  for  church  read  gate  {porta)  of  San  Friano. 

"^^  According  to  Perkins  this  tomb  was  designed  by  an  unknown  Sienese 
artist  and  Cellino  di  Nese  was  called  to  Pistoja  in  1334  to  sculpture  it  and 
complete  the  Baptistery. 


90 


ANDREA  PISANO 


Friano,^^  which  he  brought  to  the  state  in  which  we  now  see 
it,  but  also  raised  the  walls  for  the  vestibule  of  all  the  gates 
of  the  city,  with  the  smaller  gates  which  were  opened  for 
the  convenience  of  the  people.  The  duke  further  desired 
to  construct  a  fortress  on  the  side  of  San  Giorgio,  and  An- 
drea prepared  the  model  for  it ;  but  this  was  not  used,  the 
work  never  having  been  commenced,  because  the  duke  was 
driven  from  the  city  in  the  year  1343.  The  design  of  the 
Duke  Gualtieri  to  give  the  palace  the  form  of  a  strong  for- 
tress, was  nevertheless  effected  in  great  part,  since  he  made 
such  important  additions  to  the  buildings  previously  con- 
structed, that  the  edifice  then  received  its  present  form  ;  the 
houses  of  the  Filipetri,  with  the  towers  and  houses  of  the 
Amidei  and  the  Mancini,  and  those  of  the  Bellalberti,  being 
comprised  within  the  circuit  of  the  palace  walls.  Gualtieri, 
moreover,  not  having  all  the  materials  required  for  the  vast 
fabric  which  he  had  thus  commenced,  with  its  immense 
walls  and  barbicans,  at  hand,  delayed  the  progress  of  the 
Ponte  Vecchio,  which  the  city  was  constructing  with  all 
possible  speed,  as  a  work  of  necessity,  by  taking  possession 
of  the  hewn  stones  and  wood-work  prepared  for  the  bridge, 
without  any  consideration  for  the  public  convenience.  In 
none  of  his  undertakings  would  the  duke  employ  Taddeo 
Gaddi,  because  that  master  was  a  Florentine,  although  he 
was  not  inferior  as  an  architect,  perhaps,  to  Andrea  the 
Pisan,  whose  services  Gualtieri  constantly  preferred.  The 
duke  had  also  formed  the  design  of  demolishing  the  church 
of  Santa  Cecilia,  to  the  end  that  he  might  be  able  to  see  the 
Strada  Romana  and  the  Mercato  Nuovo  from  his  palace. 
He  meant  to  destroy  San  Scheraggio  likewise  for  his  own 
purposes,  but  had  not  obtained  permission  from  the  pope  to 
do  so,  when  he  was  expelled,  as  we  have  said,  by  the  fury  of 
the  people. 

By  his  honourable  labours  of  many  years,  Andrea  Pisano 
acquired  not  only  rich  rewards,  but  the  right  of  citizenship, 
which  was  awarded  to  him  by  the  Signoria  of  Florence 

22  In  1232. 


ANDREA  PISANO 


91 


who  further  conferred  on  him  magisterial  and  other  offices 
in  their  city.^  His  works,  also,  were  held  in  honour,  both 
while  he  lived  and  after  his  death,  none  being  found  to  sur- 
pass him  in  ability  until  the  times  of  Niccolo  of  Arezzo, 
Jacopo  della  Querela  of  Siena,  Donatello,  Filippo  di  Ser 
Brunellesco,  and  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  by  whom  sculpture 
and  other  works  of  art  were  executed  in  a  manner  that 
taught  the  nations  the  extent  of  the  errors  in  which  they 
had  lived  until  those  masters  appeared.  For  by  these  the 
art  which  had  for  long  years  been  hidden  or  but  imperfectly 
comprehended,  was  fully  recovered  and  restored.  The  pe- 
riod of  Andrea^s  labours  was  about  the  year  of  our  salvation 
1340. 

This  master  left  many  disciples  :  among  others  the  Pisan 
Tommaso,  who  was  an  architect  and  sculptor.  He  finished 
the  Campo  Santo,  and  completed  the  building  of  the  cam- 
panile,— of  the  upper  part  that  is,  wherein  are  the  bells. 
Tommaso  is  believed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Andrea,^  being 
so  inscribed  on  the  picture  of  the  high  altar  in  the  church 
of  San  Francseco  di  Pisa,  where  are  a  Virgin  and  other 
saints,  carved  by  him  in  mezzo-rilievo,  while  he  has  placed 
his  name  and  that  of  his  father  beneath  these  figures. 

Andrea  also  left  a  son,  called  Nino,  who  devoted  himself  to 
sculpture.  His  first  work  was  executed  in  Santa  Maria  No- 
vella at  Florence,  where  he  finished  a  Madonna  in  marble, 
commenced  by  his  f  ather,^^  and  which  is  now  within  the  side 
door,  near  the  chapel  of  the  Minerbetti.  From  Florence 
Nino  proceeded  to  Pisa,  where  he  executed  a  half-figure  of 
the  Virgin  in  marble,  at  the  Spina  :  she  is  suckling  tlie 
Child,  who  is  wrapped  in  fine  linen.  This  Madonna,  Messer 
Jacopo  Corbini  caused  to  be  surrounded,  in  1522,  with  mar- 
ble ornaments,  and  had  still  finer  and  more  magnificent  em- 

23  Milanesi  states  that  there  is  no  record  of  his  having  been  made  a  citizen  of 
Florence. 

2*  Documents  of  the  year  1368,  discovered  by  Professor  Bonaini,  confirm  this 
belief. 

Still  in  a  niche  under  the  organ. 


92 


ANDREA  PISANO 


bellishments  ^  made  for  a  whole-length  figure  of  the  Virgin, 
also  in  marble,  and  by  this  same  Nino.  The  mother  is  here 
seen  to  offer  a  rose  to  her  son,  in  an  attitude  of  much  grace, 
while  the  child  takes  it  with  infantine  sweetness  ;  and  the 
whole  work  is  so  beautiful,  that  one  may  truly  affirm  Nino 
to  have  here  deprived  the  stone  of  its  hardness,  and  imparted 
to  it  the  lustre,  polish,  and  vitality  of  flesh.  This  figure 
stands  between  a  San  Giovanni  and  a  San  Pietro,  both  in 
marble,  the  latter  a  portrait  of  Andrea,  taken  from  the  life. 
Nino  also  executed  two  marble  statues  for  one  of  the  altars 
of  St.  Catherine  at  Pisa.  They  represent  the  Virgin,  with 
the  Angel  of  the  Annunciation,  and,  like  his  other  works, 
are  so  carefully  done,  that  they  may  justly  be  described  as 
the  best  that  those  times  had  produced.  On  the  pedestal  of 
this  Madonna,  Nino  carved  the  following  words  : — The 
first  day  of  February  1370"  ;  and  beneath  the  angel  he  in- 
scribed as  follows: — Nino,  the  son  of  Andrea  of  Pisa, 
made  this  figure."  ^  He  executed  other  works,  in  Naples  as 
well  as  in  Pisa,  but  of  these  it  is  not  needful  to  speak 
here. 

2«  The  Madonna  della  Rosa  is  still  in  place.  Girolamo  d'  Jacopo  da  Carrara 
Bculptured  the  border-ornaments  in  1521. 

This  inscription  postdates  the  statues.  Maestro  Nino  had  died  before 
1370,  as  is  proved  by  a  decree  of  the  Anziani  of  Siena, wherein,  on  the  8th  of 
December,  1368,  a  payment  of  twenty  golden  florins  is  voted  to  Andrea,  son 
of  the  late  Nino,  sculptor.  The  statues  described  above  were  colored,  the  hair 
and  eyes  were  tinted,  and  the  robes  picked  out  with  gold ;  they  are  still  in  the 
church. 

Nino  Pisano  died  about  1357.  Among  his  works  are  a  Madonna  in  S.  M. 
Novella  of  Florence,  one  in  the  Museo  d'Arezzo,  and  the  Saltarelli  monument 
in  Pisa.  M.  Marcel  Reymond  ( Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts^  1893)  attributes  to 
him  two  Annunciations,  one  in  the  museum  of  Lyons  and  one  in  the  Louvre, 
and  an  angel  in  the  Hotel  Cluny  at  Paris,  and  says  of  him,  that  if  Nino  sculpt- 
ured the  scenes  from  Genesis  on  the  fagade  of  the  Orvietan  cathedral,  he 
can  understand  why  Vasari  called  him  the  best  sculptor  of  his  time.  M. 
Reymond,  in  his  remarks  upon  the  fourteenth-century  sculpture,  asserts 
that  after  Michelangelo's  tomb  of  Julius  II.  the  most  grandiose  and  magnif- 
icent tomb  in  Italy  is  that  of  King  Robert  of  Naples,  by  the  brothers  Baccio 
and  Giovanni,  of  Florence  (contract  given  in  1340),  but  thinks  the  architect- 
ure and  conception  superior  to  the  sculptural  execution. 


ANDREA  PISANO 


93 


Andrea  died  in  the  year  1345,^  aged  seventy-five  years, 
and  was  buried  by  Nino  in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  with  the 
following  epitaph  : — 

"Ingenti  Andreas  jacit  hie  Pisanus  in  nma 
Marmore  qui  pofcuit  spirantes  ducere  vultus 
Et  simulacra  Deum  mediis  imponere  templis 
Ex  aere,  ex  auro  candenti,  et  pulcro  elephanto."  '° 

28  He  died  at  the  age  of  seventy -eight  in  1348,  and  was  buried  in  the 
nave  of  the  cathedral.    His  monumental  slab  has  disappeared. 

29  The  marking  quality  of  Andrea,  which  distinguished  him  from  his  prede- 
cessors, Niccola  and  Giovanni,  of  Pisa,  is  his  simplicity  in  composition,  and  it 
is  by  this  quality  especially  that  he  stands  among  the  four  great  sculptors  of 
the  First  or  Pre-renaissance. 

His  draperies  do  not  conceal,  but  rather  emphasize  his  figures  by  their  broad 
folds ;  he  uses  few  figures  in  his  subjects  and  the  groups  of  his  bronze  panels 
of  the  gates  are  noble  in  their  quiet  directness.  As  for  the  allegorical  figures 
in  the  lower  panels,  though  all  delicacy  of  surface  has  been  rubbed  away,  they 
are  in  their  admirable  proportions  an  immense  technical  advance  upon  the 
works  of  the  other  Pisani,  and  are  in  their  perfect  decorative  adaptability 
some  of  the  most  satisfactory  reliefs  that  the  Renaissance  has  produced. 
Symonds  in  his  Fine  Arts  has  reminded  us  that  there  will  always  be  stu- 
dents to  whom  the  "self-restraint  and  delicacy"  of  Andrea  will  appeal 
more  strongly  than  do  the  relatively  florid  works  of  Ghiberti. 

30  The  principal  pupils  of  Andrea  Pisauo  were  Orgagna  and  Balduccio 
da  Pisa. 


AMBRUOGIO  LORENZETTI,  SIENESE  PAINTERJ 


[Bom   ;  died  about  1338.] 

IF  the  debt  which  the  richly-endowed  artist  owes  to 
Nature  be  a  large  one — as  it  doubtless  is — still  greater 
is  the  amount  of  gratitude  due  from  us  to  him,  seeing 
that  by  his  cares  our  cities  are  enriched  with  noble  erections 
for  use  and  beauty,  as  well  as  with  the  graceful  embellish- 
ment of  painting,  and  other  ornaments.  It  is  true  that  artists 
most  commonly  acquire  fame  and  riches  for  themselves  by 
their  labours,  as  did  Ambruogio  Lorenzetti,  a  painter  of 
Siena.  This  master  displayed  considerable  force  of  inven- 
tion, with  great  skill  in  grouping  his  figures,  of  which  we 
find  proof  in  the  church  of  the  Friars-Minors  in  Siena, 
where  there  is  a  historical  painting  in  the  cloister,  very 
gracefully  executed  by  his  hand.  The  subject  of  this  work 
is  a  youth  who  becomes  a  monk,  and  proceeds  with  others 
to  the  court  of  the  Soldan,  where  they  are  scourged,  con- 
demned to  the  gallows,  hanged  on  a  tree,  and  finally  decap- 
itated, while  a  horrible  tempest  is  prevailing.  In  this 
picture,  Lorenzetti  has  represented  the  turmoil  of  the  ele- 
ments, with  the  fury  of  the  rain  and  wind  (against  which 
his  figures  are  struggling),  with  infinite  ability.  And  from 
him  it  is  that  later  masters  first  acquired  the  mode  of  de- 
picting circumstances  of  this  kind,  for  his  portraiture  of 
which,  as  a  thing  not  previously  attempted,  he  deserves  high 

'  He  signed  his  pictures  Ambrosius  Laurentii,  but  in  contemporaneous  rec- 
ords was  usually  called  Ambruogio  Lorenzetti  or  del  Lorenzetto ;  his  brother 
was  Pietro  Lorenzetti,  erroneously  called  Laurati  by  Vasari.  Milanesi's  re- 
searches in  the  archives  of  Siena  are  especially  valuable  to  students  of  Sienese 
art  and  all  notes  to  this  life  when  not  otherwise  accredited  are  taken  from  his 
notes  or  commentary. 


AMBRUOGIO  LORENZETTI  95 

commendation.^  Ambruogio  was  a  practiced  fresco  painter, 
as  well  as  an  excellent  colourist  in  distemper  ;  his  works  in 
the  latter  are  executed  with  extreme  facility,  and  evince 
great  talent.  This  may  still  be  seen  in  the  pictures  by  this 
master  in  the  small  hospital  called  Mona  Agnesa  in  Siena, 
where  he  painted  a  historical  work  of  which  the  composition 
displayed  new  qualities  that  were  greatly  admired.^  On  one 
of  the  walls  of  the  great  hospital  ^  also,  he  painted  the  Na- 
tivity of  the  Virgin  in  fresco,  with  a  second  picture,  repre- 
senting her  approaching  the  Temple  with  others  of  her  age. 
The  chapter-house  of  the  Augustine  friars,  in  the  same  city, 
was  also  enriched  by  Lorenzetti,  who  painted  the  Apostles 
on  the  ceiling  of  that  edifice.  Each  holds  a  tablet,  whereon 
that  part  of  the  Creed  composed  by  the  said  Apostle  is 
written.  Beneath  each  figure  is  a  small  representation, 
which  exhibits  in  painting  the  subject  written  on  the  scrolls 
above.  Near  these  works,  and  on  the  principal  fagade,  are 
three  stories ;  one  of  them  is  from  the  life  of  St.  Catharine 
the  Martyr,  and  represents  her  holding  a  disputation  with 
the  tyrant  in  the  Temple  ;  another  is  the  Crucifixion  of 
Christ,  with  the  Thieves  on  the  Cross,  and  the  Maries  be- 
neath, the  latter  supporting  the  Virgin,  who  has  fainted, — 
all  which  display  much  grace  and  good  manner.^  In  one  of 
the  large  halls  of  the  palace  of  the  Signoria  in  Siena, 
Ambruogio  represented  the  War  of  Asinalunga,®  with  the 

^  Ambruogio's  earliest  works,  in  S.  Francesco  of  Siena,  were  executed,  accord- 
ing to  Tizio,  in  1331.  Two  fragments  of  a  fresco  still  remain  in  the  second 
chapel  of  the  church.  Of  all  Ambruogio's  works  these  frescoes  of  S.  Fran- 
ceico  were  most  admired  by  Ghiberti  in  his  Commentary. 

3  This  fresco,  which  no  longer  exists,  was  on  the  facade  of  the  little  church 
(of  San  Bernardino)  contiguous  to  the  hospital  of  SS.  Gregorio  e  Niccolo  in 
Sasso  ;  called  of  Mona  Agnese  because  founded  by  Agnes  of  Arezzo  in  1378. 
The  Presentation  at  the  Temple,  painted  in  1342,  is  now  in  the  Florentine 
Academy. 

*  These  pictures,  painted  with  the  aid  of  his  brother  Pietro  in  1335,  were 
destroyed  in  1720. 

*  Destroyed  by  changes  in  the  church.  Vestiges  of  frescoes  with  half-length 
figures  of  Christ,  San  Lorenzo,  and  Santa  Caterina  remain  in  the  vaulting  of  a 
room  next  the  corridor  which  leads  to  the  Collegio  Tolomei. 

*  Ouerra  (V  Asi7ialunga^  that  is  to  say,  the  victory  gained  by  Siena  over  the 


96  AMBRUOGIO  LORENZETTI 

■  various  events  of  the  peace  which  succeeded  ;  in  this  work 
he  introduced  a  map,  which  for  those  times  was  perfect."^ 
In  the  same  palace,  Lorenzetti  executed  eight  historical 
pieces  in  terra  verde,  most  exquisitely  finished.^  He  is  also 
said  to  have  sent  a  picture  in  distemper  to  Volterra,  in 
which  city  it  was  very  highly  esteemed ;  and  at  Massa, 
where  he  painted  a  chapel  in  fresco,  and  a  picture  in  dis- 
temper, in  company  with  other  artists,  he  gave  further 
proof  of  his  judgment,  and  of  the  genius  for  the  pictorial 
arts  with  which  he  had  been  endowed.^  In  Orvieto,  more- 
over, Lorenzetti  painted  in  fresco  the  principal  chapel  of 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria,  and  afterwards  proceeding  to 
Florence,  he  executed  a  picture  in  one  of  the  chapels  of  the 
church  of  San  Procolo,  with  stories  in  small  figures  from 
the  life  of  San  Nicolo,  at  the  request  of  some  of  his  friends, 
who  were  anxious  to  become  acquainted  with  his  modes  of 
proceeding.  The  practiced  dexterity  of  Ambruogio  enabled 
him  to  complete  these  works  in  so  short  a  time,  that  his 
name  and  reputation  were  greatly  extended  thereby.  In 
consequence  of  this  work,  on  the  predella  of  which  he 
painted  his  own  portrait, Lorenzetti  was  invited  to  Cortona 
in  the  year  1335,  by  order  of  bishop  Ubertini,  then  lord  of 
that  city.  12    Here  he  painted  several  pictures  in  the  church 

Compagnia  del  Cappello  in  1303.    The  fresco  was  painted  in  the  Hall  of  the 
Balestre  or  Jfappamondo^  but  is  of  doubtful  authenticity  (as  a  work  of 
Ambruogio). 
'  The  Mappamondo  has  disappeared. 

8  Painted  1345,  and  long  since  lost.  A  picture  of  the  Annunciation  painted 
for  the  same  place  in  1344  is  now  in  the  Belle  Arti  at  Siena. 

»  Nothing  is  known  of  the  picture  for  Volterra.  Milanesi  records  the  Massa 
frescoes  as  having  been  destroyed,  but  quotes  Gaye's  assertion  that  the  picture 
( Tavola)  made  for  Massa  exists  still  in  the  Cancelleria  and  represents  a  Ma- 
donna enthroned  with  Saints  and  Angels. 

"  Nothing  is  known  of  these  pictures. 

1^  Two  of  the  predella  panels  exist  in  the  Academy  at  Florence ;  they  repre- 
sent scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Bari.  They  were  formerly  in  the 
Badia.  All  of  the  remaining  parts  of  the  altar-piece  are  lost,  including  the 
portrait  of  Lorenzetti. 

12  Nothing  remains  of  these  frescoes.  Buoso,  bishop  of  Arezzo,  held  no 
lordship  in  Cortona,  but  a  certain  Ranieri  degli  Ubertini,  and  contemporane- 


AMBRUOGIO  LORENZETTI 


97 


of  Santa  Margarita,  which  had  been  erected  on  the  summit 
of  the  mountain  a  short  time  previously  by  the  monks  of 
St.  Francis.  The  interior  walls,  and  one  half  of  the  ceiling, 
were  so  carefully  done,  that  although  this  work  is  now 
almost  destroyed  by  time,  yet  there  is  great  animation  still 
to  be  perceived  in  the  figures  through  all  its  parts,  and  we 
cannot  but  admit  that  it  has  been  deservedly  praised.  . 
These  paintings  being  completed,  Ambruogio  returned  to 
Siena,  where  he  lived  honourably  for  the  remainder  of  his 
days,  and  was  universally  admired,  not  only  as  an  excellent 
master  in  painting,  but  also  because,  having  applied  himself 
to  science  and  letters  in  his  youth,  these  formed  a  pleasant 
and  useful  accompaniment  to  his  pictorial  studies,  and  so 
richly  adorned  his  whole  life,  that  they  contributed,  no  less 
than  his  gifts  as  a  painter,  to  render  him  beloved  and  re- 
spected. Lorenzetti  had  at  all  times  frequented  the  society 
of  learned  and  virtuous  men,  and  was  permitted  to  take 
part  in  the  cares  of  governing  his  native  city,  to  his  no 
small  honour  and  profit.  The  life  of  Ambruogio  was  in 
all  respects  praiseworthy,  and  rather  that  of  a  gentleman 
and  philosopher  than  of  an  artist ;  and,  what  more  than  all 
perhaps  gives  proof  of  wisdom  in  a  man,  he  constantly  main- 
tained the  equanimity  of  mind  which  disposed  him  to  con- 
tent himself  with  such  events  as  time  and  the  world  pre- 
sented, so  that  he  supported  the  good  and  evil  apportioned 
to  him  by  fortune  with  a  calm  and  equal  mind.  And  of  a 
truth,  it  would  not  be  possible  that  words  should  sufficiently ' 
declare  the  extent  to  which  modesty,  and  an  irreproachable 
walk  in  life,  add  honour  to  all  the  arts,  but  particularly  to 
those  which  derive  their  birth  from  the  intelligence  of  noble 
and  exalted  minds  ;  wherefore  every  artist  should  be  careful 
to  render  himself  no  less  acceptable  for  the  purity  of  his 
conduct  than  for  his  excellence  in  art. 
Finally,  'and  towards  the  end  of  his  life,  Ambruogio 

ous  with  Buoso,  was  bishop  of  Cortona  and  perhaps  called  Lorenzetti  to  that 
city. 

»3  There  is  no  proof  of  this  to  be  found  in  the  public  records. 
7 


98 


AMBRUOGIO  LORENZETTI 


painted  a  picture  at  Monte  Oliveto  di  Chiusuri/^  which 
greatly  increased  his  fame  ;  and  a  short  time  after  having 
completed  this  work,  he  passed  happily,  and  in  the  spirit  of 
Christian  love,  to  a  better  life,  in  the  eighty-third  year  of 
his  age.    His  works  date  about  the  year  1340.^^ 

The  portrait  of  Ambruogio,  from  his  own  hand,^^  may  be 
seen,  as  we  have  already  said,  on  the  base  of  his  picture  at 

1*  The  Monte  Oliveto  picture  has  disappeared. 

"  Lorenzetti's  name  first  appears  in  1323,  and  for  this  reason,  and  because 
also  of  his  advanced  manner,  Milanesi  inclines  to  believe  that  he  was  born 
nearly  with  the  fourteenth  century.  In  the  heading  to  his  life  of  Ambruogio, 
the  date  of  his  death  is  circa  1338,  but  note  1,  p.  525,  Vol.  I.,  suggests  the 
plague  of  1348  as  the  probable  cause  of  his  decease. 

i»  The  earliest  work  of  Pietro  di  Lorenzo  (Pietro  Laurati,  Pietro  Lorenzetti) 
is,  according  to  Woltmann  and  Woermann,  a  Madonna  enthroned  with  Saints  ; 
it  is  in  Sant'  Ansano,  a  church  near  Siena,  and  is  dated  1329.  A  Madonna  with 
Angels,  dated  1340,  is  in  the  Uffizi,  and  his  finest  work  is  a  Birth  of  the  Vir- 
gin, dated  1342,  in  the  sacristy  of  the  Duomo  of  Siena ;  "  the  same  subject  has 
hardly  found  another  such  satisfactory  rendering  in  the  same  age."  The  style 
of  Ambruogio  and  Pietro  Lorenzetti  is  a  more  masculine  and  vigorous  one 
than  can  be  found  in  the  other  masters  of  the  Sienese  School,  approaching 
the  robust  dignity  of  Giotto  more  than  does  the  grave  but  sweeter  dignity  of 
Martini.  Among  the  trecentisti  Ambruogio  Lorenzetti  is  the  painter  of  mys- 
teries or  moralities  upon  a  vast  scale ;  he  is  the  allegorist  and  the  preacher. 
He  paints,  too,  with  a  robustness  (lent,  perhaps,  in  part  by  his  subject)  which 
makes  him  more  akin  to  the  Oiotteschi  than  are  the  other  Sienese,  and  his 
great  fresco  in  the  Hall  of  Peace  of  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  of  Siena  is  hardly 
eclipsed  in  celebrity  by  any  painted  allegory.  It  embraces  three  distinct  sub- 
jects ;  I.  The  Commune  of  Siena,  a  colossal  man  enthroned  among  virtues 
theological  and  profane.  II.  Good  Government,  in  which  a  series  of  genre 
pictures  represent  the  peaceful  life  of  a  well-ruled  city.  III.  Bad  Government, 
in  which  the  benevolent  Colossus  is  replaced  by  a  monster,  and  the  virtues  by 
Fraud,  Cruelty,  Discord,  Terror,  and  War.  Among  the  symbolical  figures 
of  the  first  composition  is  the  famous  Peace  which  Symonds  conjectured 
might  be  copied  from  the  antique  statue  of  Venus  which  once  stood  over  the 
public  fountain.  Lorenzetti  had  made  a  drawing  of  it  which  Ghiberti  admired 
many  years  afterv/ards. 

The  whole  composition  is  a  painted  treatise  and  was  probably  planned  by 
some  student  of  Aristotle  or  of  Dante's  De  Mbnarchia.  It  is  interesting  to 
the  art  student  because  the  didactic  purpose  does  not  exclude  beauty  of  a 
noble  and  monumental  type,  and  because  it  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the 
civic  spirit  as  manifested  in  municipal  decoration. 

M.  Lafenestre,  La  Feinture  Ralienne, Yol.  I.,  says  that  Pietro  Lorenzetti  was 
the  first  to  substitute  the  rosy  colouring  of  real  flesh  to  the  greenish  shadows 
of  the  Byzantines.    He  accredits  the  scenes  from  the  lives  of  Hermits  in  the 


AMBRUOGIO  LOKENZETTI 


99 


St.  Procolo,  bearing  a  cap  on  the  head.  His  capabilities  in 
drawing  may  be  judged  from  my  book,  wherein  are  certain 
designs  of  tolerable  merit  by  his  hand. 

Pisan  Campo  Santo  to  him  and  quotes  Paul  Mantz's  assertion  that  the  "  con- 
templative life  "  in  that  series  deserves  a  place  in  the  history  of  landscape. 

Forster,  in  his  Gesch.  der  Ital.  Malerei,  Vol.  II.,  p.  382,  disputes  the  author- 
ship of  Pietro  in  these  frescoes.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  ascribe  to 
Pietro  certain  frescoes  in  the  south  transept  of  San  Francesco  at  Assisi  (lower 
church)  which  are  by  Vasari  given  to  Cavallini. 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI/  SIEN- 
NESE  PAINTERS 


(Born  1285?;  died  1344)— (born  ;  died  1357?) 

Bibliography. — Rio,  V Art  Chretien.  ^wns^-CAroniA;,  xix.,219  ;  Zeitsch., 
/.  6.  iC,  X.  65,  V.  234.    Dohrae,  2  t.    Milaxiesi,  Bocumenti Sancsi. 

MOST  truly  may  those  men  be  called  happy  who  are  by 
nature  disposed  to  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  for 
not  only  may  they  derive  great  honour  and  profit 
therefrom  in  their  lives,  but  what  is  more  important,  they 
secure  never-dying  fame.  Still  more  fortunate  are  they 
who  to  such  dispositions  add  a  character  and  manners 
calculated  to  render  them  acceptable  to  all  men ;  but  happy 
above  all  men  is  he  (I  am  here  alluding  to  artists)  who,  with 
natural  talent  cultivated  by  education,  with  a  noble  disposi- 
tion and  refinement  of  manners,  possesses  also  the  advantage 
of  living  at  the  same  time  with  any  renowned  author,  from 
whom,  in  return  for  some  little  portrait,  or  similar  expres- 
sion of  artistic  courtesy,  he  obtains  the  reward  of  being 
once  mentioned  in  his  writings,  thereby  securing  to  himself 
eternal  honour  and  fame.  This  advantage  is  above  all  to  be 
desired  by  those  who  practice  the  arts  of  design,  and  most 
especially  by  the  painter,  since  his  work,  lying  simply  on 
the  surface,  and  being  dependent  on  colours  which  cannot 
endure,  may  not  hope  for  that  perpetuity  which  is  secured  to 
the  sculptor  by  his  bronze  and  marble,  as  it  is  to  the  architect 
by  the  durability  of  his  erections.  Great,  then,  was  the 
good  fortune  of  Simon,  in  that  he  lived  at  the  same 
time  with  Messer  Francesco  Petrarca,  and  that  he  further 
chanced  to  meet  that  love-devoted  poet  at  the  court  of 
Avignon.    For  Petrarch,  being  desirous  of  possessing  the 

>  Simone  Martini  and  Lippo  di  Memmo  di  Filipuccio,  called  Lippo  Memmi 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI  101 


image  of  his  Madonna  Laura  ^  from  the  hand  of  Maestro 
Simon,  and  having  received  it,  beautiful  as  he  could  imagine 
or  desire,^  at  once  immortalized  the  memory  of  the  painter 
in  two  sonnets,  one  of  which  begins  thus  : — 

"Per  mirar  Policleto  a  prova  fiso 
Con  gli  altri,  che  ebber  f  ama  di  quell'  arte  " ; 

and  the  second  commences  as  follows  : — 

"Quando  giunse  a  Simon  Talto  concetto, 
Oh'  a  mio  nome  gli  pose  in  man  lo  stile." 

For  it  may  be  truly  said  that  these  Sonnets,  and  the  men- 
tion made  of  the  painter  in  the  fifth  book  of  Petrarch^s 
familiar  letters,''  and  in  the  epistle  beginning  ''Non  sum 
nescius,"  have  given  more  lustre  to  the  poor  life  of  Maestro 
Simon,  than  it  has  received,  or  ever  will  receive,  from  all 
his  works. ^  These  are  indeed  rapidly  perishing,  and  must 
finally  be  lost,  while  the  works  of  Petrarch  shall  survive  to 
all  eternity.  Simon  Memmi  of  Siena  was  nevertheless  an 
excellent  painter,  highly  distinguished  in  his  day,  and 
greatly  esteemed  at  the  court  of  the  Pope.  In  so  much 
that,  after  the  death  of  his  master  Giotto,  whom  he  had 
accompanied  to  Eome,  at  the  time  when  the  latter  executed 

The  portrait  is  lost.  The  miniature  called  Laura  di  Noves  in  the  Lauren- 
tian  Library  at  Florence  was  evidently  painted  in  the  fif ti  onth  century. 
Rio,  in  UAH  Chretien^  states  that  there  was  formerly  a  portrait  of  Laura  in 
the  Palace  of  Fontainebleau,  and  Aretino  boasted  of  possessing  a  very  old  one. 

^  It  cannot  be  claimed  that  in  the  fourteenth  century  any  real  portrait 
painting  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word  existed.  Modern  portraiture  began 
in  the  fifteenth  century. 

*  Certain  figures  in  the  Spanish  Chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  in  Florence 
are  pointed  out  as  portraits  of  Petrarch  and  Laura.  There  is  no  foundation 
for  this  attribution. 

6  As  Dante  stood  sponsor  to  Cimabue  and  Giotto  in  his  verse,  so  Petrarch 
stood  sponsor  to  Giotto  again,  and  to  Simone  as  "the  two  great  painters," 
but  the  best  credentials  of  either  of  these  are  their  frescoes  of  Assisi  and 
Santa  Croce  and  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  of  Siena.  No  travellers  to  these 
places  need  either  Dante  or  Petrarch  to  point  out  that  Giotto  of  the  Mugello 
or  Simone  of  Siena  was  a  great  painter. 


102  SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 


the  Navicella/  in  mosaic  and  other  works,  he  attained  high 
credit  for  his  successful  imitation  of  that  artist's  manner. 
This  was  more  particularly  exemplified  in  the  execution  of 
a  Virgin  in  the  portico  of  St.  Peter,  and  in  that  of  two 
figures,  representing  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  on  the  wall 
between  the  arches  of  the  portico  on  the  outer  side,  and 
near  the  bronze  Pine.'^  Especial  praise  has  been  given  to 
the  portrait  of  a  sacristan  of  St.  Peter's,  whom  Simon  has 
depicted  in  this  work  hurriedly  kindling  lamps  before  the 
saints,  and  the  merit  of  the  whole  caused  the  artist  to  be 
summoned,  with  very  pressing  instances,  to  the  court  of 
Avignon,^  where  he  produced  so  many  good  pictures,  both 
in  fresco  and  distemper,  that  his  works  justified  the  name 
by  which  he  had  been  preceded.  Having  then  returned  to 
Siena  in  high  estimation,  and  being  much  favoured  on 
that  account,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Signoria  to  paint  one 
of  the  halls  of  their  Palace  in  fresco,  the  subject  being  a 
Virgin,  with  many  figures  around  her,^  all  which  Simon 
executed  admirably  well,  to  his  great  honour  and  profit. 

« He  was  only  fourteen  years  old  in  1298,  when  Giotto  executed  the 
Navicella,  and  he  was  evidently  not  the  pupil  of  a  Tuscan,  but  of  a  Sienese, 
possibly  of  Duccio. 

''It  is  very  doubtful  if  Simone  ever  worked  in  Rome.  The  pictures 
mentioned  by  Vasari  have  perished,  except  the  Virgin,  formerly  in  the  portico, 
which  is  now  in  the  Orotte  Scwe  (chapel  of  the  Madonna  delta  Bocciata)  of 
the  Vatican,  but  is  in  too  ruinous  condition  to  tell  whether  it  shows  Simone's 
hand  or  not. 

8  Simon  went  to  Avignon  in  1339.  Frescoes  remain  by  him  in  the  chapels 
of  the  Pope,  and  of  the  Holy  Ofi&ce  in  the  Palace  of  the  Popes.  The  frescoes 
in  the  great  hall  of  the  Consistory  have  been  whitewashed,  with  the  exception 
of  some  Sibyls  and  Prophets  in  the  vaulting.  For  these  frescoes  see  M. 
Muntz,  in  the  Gazette  ArcMologique,  1885-6-7,  and  also  in  Vol.  I.  of  Les 
Monuments  de  La  France. 

*  Opposite  this  fresco  at  the  other  end  of  the  hall  is  another  by  Simone,  rep- 
resenting a  knight  horsed  and  armed.  This  is  Guidoriccio  of  Fogliano, 
captain  of  the  Sienese,  at  the  siege  of  Monte  Massi.  The  great  lunette  of  the 
Madonna  in  the  old  council  hall  was  originally  painted  by  one  Mino,  in 
1289,  but  Simone  restored  it  and  made  it  almost  completely  his,  though 
critics  affirm  that  some  traces  of  the  older  hand  may  be  seen  in  the  faces  of 
the  Madonna  and  of  the  infant  Jesus.  (See  the  Commentario  of  Milanesi, 
Vol.  III.,  pp.  563-566.) 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI  103 


And  to  prove  that  he  could  do  no  less  in  distemper  than  in 
fresco,  he  painted  a  picture  in  the  same  Palace,  which 
caused  his  being  appointed  to  paint  two  others  in  the 
cathedral/^  with  a  third  picture  of  the  Virgin  holding  the 
Child  in  her  arms,  over  the  door  of  the  superintendent's 
room  in  that  church.^-  The  attitude  of  this  figure  is  very 
beautiful,  and  the  angels  which  support  a  standard  and 
hover  around  the  Virgin  while  they  turn  their  eyes  towards 
certain  saints  who  stand  below,  display  much  grace,  and 
infinitely  increase  the  beauty  of  the  work.  When  all  this 
was  completed  Simon  was  invited  to  Florence  by  the 
General  of  the  Augustines,  where  he  painted  the  chapter- 
house of  Santo  Spirito,^^  evincing  wonderful  powers  of 
invention  and  admirable  judgment  in  his  figures  and  horses, 
more  particularly  in  representing  the  Crucifixion,  a  work  of 
which  every  part  has  been  executed  with  mature  considera- 
tion and  extreme  grace  of  manner.  In  this  painting  the 
thieves  on  the  cross  are  seen  expiring,  the  soul  of  the 
repentant  thief  being  joyfully  borne  to  heaven  by  the 
angels,  while  that  of  the  impenitent  departs,  accompanied  by 
devils,  and  roughly  dragged  by  these  demons  to  the  torments 
of  hell.  Equal  powers  of  invention  and  similar  judgment 
are  evinced  by  this  master  in  the  attitudes  of  other  angels 
standing  around  the  crucifix,  and  their  grief  is  eloquently 
expressed  by  their  bitter  weeping,  but  remarkable  above  all 
is  the  manner  in  which  these  spirits  seem  visibly  to  cleave 
the  air,  while,  turning  almost  in  a  circle,  they  still  sustain 

"Novf  lost. 

"  Of  the  two  pictures  for  the  Duomo,  the  first,  an  altar-piece  in  various 
panels,  painted  in  1881,  was  eventually  dispersed,  and  portions  of  it  were 
seen  by  P,  della  Valle  in  the  collection  of  a  Roman  lawyer,  Signor  Mariotti. 
The  second  picture  was  an  Annunciation,  and  was  signed  by  Simone  and  Lippo 
together ;  it  js  now  in  the  Uffizi,  where  are  also  the  side-panels  with  figures  of 
SanV  Ansaiio  and  Santa  Oiulitla.    (See  Milanesi,  Vol.  I.,  p.  548,  note  3.) 

'2  It  was  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  17<J8.  In  reality  the  fresco  was  on  the 
front  of  the  Petrucci  Palace  and  not  over  the  cathedral  door. 

"  When  the  frescoes  (since  destroyed)  of  San  Spirito  were  painted,  Simone 
was  absent  from  Italy.  See  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle's  History  of  Painting  in 
Italy,  IL,  85. 


104  SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 


the  movement  of  their  flight.  We  should  indeed  have  much 
more  satisfactory  proof  of  the  excellence  of  Simon  in  that 
work,  had  it  not,  in  addition  to  the  injuries  received  from 
time,  been  further  spoiled  by  the  monks  of  the  convent  in 
the  year  1560  :  for  these  fathers,  unable  to  use  the  chapter- 
house on  account  of  its  humidity,  constructed  an  arch  to 
replace  some  worm-eaten  wood-work,  in  doing  which  they 
ruined  what  little  yet  remained  of  this  master's  paintings. 
About  the  same  time  Simon  painted  a  picture  of  the  Virgin 
with  St.  Luke  and  other  saints,  in  distemper ;  this  is  now  in 
the  chapel  of  the  Gondi  in  Santa  Maria  Novella,  and  bears 
the  name  of  the  master.  He  also  painted  three  of  the  walls 
of  the  chapter-house  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  a  very  suc- 
cessful work.  On  the  first  wall,  over  the  door  of  entrance, 
he  depicted  the  Life  of  San  Domenico ;  and  on  that  which 
follows  towards  the  church,  he  represented  the  Brethren  of 
the  Dominican  order  contending  against  the  heretics,  whom 
Simon  has  described  under  the  form  of  wolves  assaulting  a 
flock  of  sheep,  which  is  defended  by  numerous  dogs,  spotted 
with  black  and  white  ;  by  these  dogs  the  wolves  are  repulsed 
and  slain.  There  are  besides  other  heretics,  who  having 
been  convinced  in  disputation  with  the  faithful,  confess 
their  errors,  and  tear  their  books.  The  souls  of  these  pass 
the  gates  of  Paradise,  within  which  are  seen  many  small 
figures,  employed  in  various  occupations.  In  heaven,  the 
glory  of  the  Saints  and  of  Jesus  Christ  is  given  to  view, 
while  all  mundane  pleasures  and  vain  delights  remain  in 
the  world  below,  being  represented  by  human  forms,  but 
especially  by  those  of  women  seated.  Among  these  is  Ma- 
donna Laura,  the  lady  of  Petrarch,  taken  from  life ;  she  is 
clothed  in  green,  with  a  little  flame  of  fire  between  her 

"This  picture  is  lost. 

"Researches  seem  to  prove  that  the  chapter-house  here  mentioned,  and 
now  called  chapel  of  the  Spaniards,  was  not  built  till  1350,  six  years  after 
Simone's  death ;  but  by  whomsoever  they  may  be,  these  frescoes  form  part  of 
one  of  the  most  interesting  decorative  ensembles  of  the  trecento.  Milanesi 
attributes  them,  as  well  as  the  San  Ranieri  frescoes  of  the  Campo  Santo  at 
Pisa,  to  Andrea  da  Firenze. 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI  105 


throat  and  breast.  In  this  work,  Simon  also  depicted  the 
Church  of  Christ,  guarded  by  the  pope,  the  emperor,  kings, 
cardinals,  bishops,  and  all  Christian  princes,  among  whom 
is  Messer  Francesco  Petrarca,  beside  a  knight  of  Rhodes, 
and  also  drawn  from  the  life.  This  portrait  Simon  added, 
to  enhance  by  his  works  the  fame  of  the  writer  who  had 
made  his  own  name  immortal.  The  Universal  Church  is 
represented  by  that  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  not  as  it  is  in 
the  present  day,  but  as  Simon  had  drawn  it  from  the  model 
and  design  which  the  architect  Arnolfo  had  left  to  be  the 
guide  of  those  who  were  to  continue  the  work  after  him,  but 
which  models  having  been  lost,  as  we  have  said  before,  by 
the  carelessness  of  the  intendants  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore ; 
we  should  now  retain  no  memorial  of  that  fabric,  if  Simon 
had  not  left  it  thus  pourtrayed  in  this  work.  On  the  third 
wall,  which  is  that  where  the  altar  stands,  the  artist  repre- 
sented the  Crucifixion  of  Christ,  who  is  first  seen  issuing 
from  the  city  of  Jerusalem  bearing  his  Cross,  and  followed 
by  a  vast  crowd  of  people.  He  proceeds  to  Mount  Calvary, 
where,  having  arrived,  he  is  seen  raised  on  the  Cross  between 
the  two  thieves,  with  the  different  circumstances  which 
form  the  usual  accompaniment  of  this  event.  I  refrain 
from  minute  description  of  the  crowd  of  horses,  the  attend- 
ants casting  lots  on  the  vestments  of  Christ,  the  resurrection 
of  the  holy  fathers,  and  all  the  other  varied  accessories, 
which  resemble  those  of  the  best  modern  artists  rather  than 
such  as  are  commonly  found  among  the  painters  of  Simon's 
day.  He  occupied  the  entire  extent  of  the  wall  with  his 
picture,  and  disposed  the  different  events  of  his  compo- 
sition, with  admirable  judgment,  on  the  declivity  of  a 

As  the  frescoes  postdate  Simone,  these  portraits  of  his  contemporaries  are 
apocryphal.  But  even  authentic  portraits  of  the  trecento  have  little  more 
than  an  archaeological  value.  The  epoch  of  the  portrait  in  Italian  art  had  not  yet 
come.  The  painter  might  reproduce  such  obvious  peculiarities  as  the  cut  of 
the  hair  and  beard,  the  costume  and  headgear,  and  these  peculiarities  are 
valuable  to  the  archreologist  in  all  matters  of  identification  and  date,  but  the 
artist  had  not  arrived  at  a  point  where  he  could  individualise  and  characterise 
the  features  sufficiently  to  give  a  portrait  any  real  artistic  or  historical  value. 


106  SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 

mountain^  not  dividing  the  several  periods  of  his  story  by 
ornaments  placed  between  each,  as  the  other  old  masters 
did,  and  indeed  as  many  moderns  do,  insomuch  that  the 
earth  stands  on  the  air  four  or  five  times  in  a  picture, 
examples  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  principal  chapel  of 
this  same  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  or  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  Pisa,  where  Simon  himself,  executing  many  works 
in  fresco,  was  compelled  against  his  judgment  to  make  such 
divisions,  since  they  had  been  made  by  the  other  masters 
who  had  laboured  in  that  place,  as  for  example  by  Giotto 
and  Buonamico  his  master, who  had  commenced  their 
stories  with  this  ill-considered  method  of  arrangement. 
Less  in  error,  then,  than  those  by  whose  example  he  was 
misled,  Simon  adhered  to  their  practice  in  the  Campo 
Santo,  where  he  painted  a  Virgin  in  fresco  within  the 
building  and  over  the  principal  door ;  she  is  borne  to  heaven 
by  a  choir  of  angels,  who  sound  their  instruments  and  sing 
with  so  much  animation,  that  all  the  various  gestures  proper 
to  musicians  playing  and  singing  are  to  be  seen  in  these 
figures ;  some  bend  the  ear  to  the  sound,  others  open  their 
mouths  in  divers  forms,  raise  their  eyes  to  heaven,  inflate 
their  throats,  puff  out  their  cheeks,  exhibit,  in  short,  all 
the  movements  usual  among  musicians.  Beneath  this  As- 
sumption, Simon  painted  stories  from  the  life  of  St.  Eanieri 
of  Pisa,  in  three  pictures.  The  first  represents  the  saint  as 
a  youth  playing  on  the  Psaltery,  while  young  girls,  with 
graceful  forms  and  beautiful  countenances,  richly  adorned 

17 This  meaningless  phrase,  "Buonamico  his  master,"  does  not  occur  in  the 
first  edition  of  the  Vasari,  and  is  considered  by  Milanesi  to  be  an  inadver- 
tence of  the  author. 

18  The  Virgin  is  probably  neither  by  Simone  Martini  nor  Lippo  Memmi. 

19  Documents  prove  that  not  Simone,  but  one  Andrea  of  Florence,  was  paid  in 
1377  for  painting  these  famous  frescoes,  and  that  in  1380  a  certain  Barna- 
bas was  called  from  Genoa  to  finish  them.  Andrea  Orgagna  was  dead  at  this 
time.  Milanesi  believes  the  Andrea  of  the  document  to  be  Andrea  Bona- 
juti,  matriculated  as  painter  in  Florence  in  1343,  and  the  Barnabas  to  be 
Barnabk  da  Modena.  Woltmann  and  Woermann,  History  of  Painting,  I., 
p.  504,  say  that  not  Barnaba,  but  Antonio  di  Francesco,  a  Venetian  (matric- 
ulated in  Florence  1374),  painted  the  three  lower  frescoes. 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI  107 

in  the  costume  and  head-dresses  of  that  time,  are  dancing 
to  the  music.  Ranieri,  having  been  reproved  for  this  sin, 
is  next  seen  with  his  head  bent  down,  tears  on  his  cheeks, 
and  his  eyes  red  with  weeping,  in  deep  repentance  of  his 
error,  whilst  the  Almighty  appearing  in  the  air,  surrounded 
by  celestial  light,  seems  extending  his  pardon  to  the  peni- 
tent. In  the  second  picture,  Ranieri,  about  to  embark  on 
shipboard,  divides  his  possessions  among  the  poor ;  he  has 
a  crowd  of  lame  beggars,  women,  and  children,  around  him, 
all  eager  to  press  forward,  and  displaying  extreme  animation 
both  in  imploring  aid  and  returning  thanks.  The  saint  is 
again  seen  in  the  same  picture  receiving  the  garb  of  a 
pilgrim  in  the  Temple,  where  he  stands  before  an  image 
of  the  Virgin,  who,  surrounded  by  angels,  promises  Ranieri 
that  at  Pisa  he  shall  find  repose  in  her  bosom.  All  these 
figures  are  full  of  life,  and  the  expression  of  the  heads  is 
beautiful.  In  the  third  picture,  Simon  has  painted  the 
saint  returned  after  seven  years'  absence  from  beyond  the 
seas.  He  has  passed  thrice  forty  days  in  the  Holy  Land, 
and  is  now  standing  in  the  choir  attending  Divine  service  ; 
a  number  of  singing  boys  are  near ;  the  saint  is  here  tempted 
by  the  devil,  but  the  fiend  is  driven  away  by  the  firm 
determination  not  to  offend  the  laws  of  God,  which  is  mani- 
fested in  Ranieri,  who  is  aided  by  a  figure  which  Simon 
meant  to  represent  Constancy.^  The  old  adversary  is  thus 
compelled  to  depart,  not  only  in  confusion,  but  great  fear ; 
he  covers  his  face  with  his  hands,  bows  down  his  head,  and 
steals  off  with  shrinking  form,  exclaiming,  as  is  seen  by  the 
writing  which  proceeds  from  his  mouth,  ^'I  can  do  no 
more."  Finally,  Ranieri  is  once  more  seen  in  this  picture, 
when,  kneeling  on  Mount  Tabor,  he  miraculously  beholds 
Christ  with  Moses  and  Elias.  These,  and  many  otlier  parts 
of  this  work,  which  I  will  not  further  describe,  prove  that 
Simon  possessed  great  power  of  imagination,  and  was  well 
versed  in  the  best  methods  of  composing  his  groups,  in 


'"Here  Vasari's  memory  fails  him  ;  there  are  no  boys  or  female  figures. 


108 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 


accordance  with  the  manner  of  those  days.''^'^  When  these 
pictures  were  finished,  the  master  painted  two  others  in 
distemper  for  the  same  city.  In  these  he  was  assisted  by 
Lippo  Memmi,  his  brother, who  had  also  helped  him  to 
paint  the  chapter-house  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  as  well  as 
other  works.  The  latter  artist  did  not  attain  to  the  excel- 
lence of  Simon,  but  nevertheless  imitated  his  manner  to 
the  best  of  his  ability,  and  painted  numerous  frescoes  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence.^^  He  also  executed  the 
picture  of  the  high  altar  in  the  church  of  Santa  Caterina  at 
Pisa  for  the  preaching  friars,  ^'^  and  in  San  Paolo  Ripa 
d'Arno,  besides  many  good  frescoes.  Lippo  Memmi  painted 
the  picture  in  distemper  which  is  now  on  the  high  altar. 
The  subject  of  this  work  is  the  Virgin,  with  St.  Peter,  St. 
Paul,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  other  Saints,  and  on  this 
Lippo  placed  his  name.  After  finishing  these  pictures, 
Lippo  executed  one  in  distemper,  for  the  brothers  of  St. 

21  His  compositions  are  often  confused  when  compared  with  those  of  Giotto. 

22  Brother-in-law,  as  in  132i  Simone  Martini  had  married  Giovanna,  the 
sister  of  Lippo  and  daughter  of  Memmo  di  Filipuccio,  who  was  also  a  painter. 
This  accounts  for  Vasari's  mistake  in  calling  the  brothers-in-law  Simone  and 
Lippo  Memrai. 

23  These  frescoes  have  perished.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  doubt 
whether  Lippo  ever  painted  in  fresco  at  S.  Croce,  S.  Paolo  Ripa  d'Arno,  or 
S.  Niccolo  of  Ancona,  as  no  traces  confirm  the  truth  of  Vasari's  assertions. 
In  the  museum  of  Cologne,  ten  small  half-length  figures,  one  of  a  Christ, 
and  one  of  an  annunciatory  angel,  the  two  latter  much  repainted,  are  believed 
to  be  by  Lippo  Memmi. 

2<This  important  altar-piece  in  thirty-five  compartments  is  not  by  Lippo 
Memmi,  but  is  signed  by  Simone  Martini.  It  is  broken  up  and  divided 
between  the  scriptorium  of  the  seminary  at  Pisa  and  the  Pisan  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts.  There  is  a  large  and  important  fresco  signed  by  Lippo  in  the 
Communal  Palace  of  San  Gimignano  ;  it  recalls  Simone's  picture  in  the  Sienese 
Palazzo  Pubblico.  An  inscription  states  that  Benozzo  Gozzoli  restored  it,  and 
he  apparently  added  some  figures.  (See  reproduction  and  description  by 
Natale Baldoria,  Mb numenti  Artist ici  di  San  Gimignano^  Arch.  Stor.^  III.,  p. 
38.  Mr.  Timothy  Cole,  the  famous  engraver,  calls  the  single  panels  from  the 
altar-piece  at  Pisa  Simone's  finest  work,  and  says  that  he  had  not  supposed 
the  artist  capable  of  such  finished  and  delicate  painting.  Mr.  Cole  engraved 
a  figure  of  Santa  Caterina  from  one  of  these  panels,  in  the  Century  Maga- 
zine, Vol.  XXXVII.,  p.  542. 

25  The  altar-piece  is  lost,  and  only  slight  vestiges  of  the  frescoes  remain. 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 


109 


Augustine,  in  St.  Gimignano/^^  whereby  he  acquired  so 
great  a  name  that  he  was  called  on  to  send  a  picture  to 
Arezzo,  for  the  bishop  Gruido  de^  Tarlati ;  this  work,  which 
comprised  three  half-figures,  is  now  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Gregory, 2'  in  the  episcopal  church. 

At  the  time  when  Simon  Memmi  was  painting  in  Florence, 
there  was  a  certain  cousin  of  his,  an  ingenious  architect, 
called  Neroccio,  who  undertook  to  make  the  great  bell  of 
the  commune  of  Florence  ring,  although  no  man  had  been 
able  to  make  it  sound  for  seventeen  years.  Twelve  men 
were  required  to  move  it ;  but  Neroccio  balanced  this  great 
bell  so  nicely  that  two  men  then  sufficed  for  that  purpose, 
and  being  once  set  going,  one  man  could  keep  it  at  its  full 
sound,  although  it  weighs  more  than  six  thousand  pounds. 
For  this,  besides  the  honour,  Neroccio  received  a  reward  of 
three  hundred  gold  florins,  which  was  a  large  sum  in  those 
days.  But  to  return  to  our  two  Sienese  painters,  the  Mem- 
mi.  In  addition  to  the  works  above  described,  Lippo  exe- 
cuted a  painting  in  distemper  after  the  design  of  Simon, 
which  was  taken  to  Pistoja,  and  placed  on  the  high  altar  of 
the  church  of  San  Francesco  ;  this  was  considered  a  very  fine 
work.  Finally  the  two  brothers  ^  returned  to  Siena,  their 
native  city,  when  Simon  commenced  a  work  of  vast  extent ; 
this  was  a  picture^  over  the  great  gate  of  Camollia,  repre- 
senting the  coronation  of  the  Virgin,  with  an  extraordinary 
number  of  figures,  but  he  left  it  unfinished,  being  seized 
with  heavy  sickness,  overcome  by  which,  he  departed  from 
this  life  in  the  year  1345,^  to  the  great  grief  of  the  whole 
city,  and  more  especially  of  his  brother  Lippo,  who  gave  him 
honourable  interment  in  San  Francesco. 

Lippo  Memmi  afterwards  completed  several  works  that 

2«Thi8  altar-piece  has  disappeared.    Tliere  are  some  panels  in  the  sacristy 
of  the  chvirch  of  I\^onte  Qliveto  which  may  have  belonged  to  it. 
27  This  picture  is  lost. 

Simone  Martini  and  Lippo  Memmi. 

Now  destroyed.    That  the  ])aintings  on  this  gate  were  of  later  date  is 
proved  by  Milanesi,  Doc.  San.,  I.,  259. 
^«  At  Avignon,  1344. 


110  SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 


Simon  had  begnn.^^  Among  others  was  a  Crucifixion  of 
Jesus  Christy  for  the  high  altar  of  San  Niccola  in  Ancona, 
in  painting  which  Lippo  imitated  one  that  Simon  had  en- 
tirely completed  for  the  chapter-house  of  Santo  Spirito  in 
Florence.  And  this  is  a  work  which  merits  a  longer  life 
than  is  likely  to  be  granted  to  it,  many  fine  attitudes  and 
much  animation  being  displayed  in  the  figures  both  of  sol- 
diers and  horses,  the  varied  gestures  of  the  former  eloquently 
expressing  their  astonishment,  and  the  perplexity  of  their 
doubts  as  to  whether  He  whom  they  have  just  crucified  were 
the  Son  of  God  ^  or  not. 

In  the  lower  church  of  San  Francesco  in  Assisi,  Lippo 
Memmi  likewise  finished  some  figures  which  Simon  had 
begun  for  the  altar  of  St.  Elizabeth,^  which  is  close  beside 
the  door  of  entrance  into  the  chapels.  These  were  the  Vir- 
gin with  St.  Louis  king  of  France,  and  other  saints,  in  all 
eight  figures,  half-lengths  only,^-^  but  well  drawn  and  ex- 
tremely well  coloured.^  In  the  great  refectory  of  the  con- 
vent of  San  Francesco,  moreover,  and  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  walls,  Simon  had  commenced  several  small  pictures,  as 
also  a  crucifix  in  the  manner  of  a  tree  of  the  Cross,  but  all 
were  left  unfinished,  or  rather  merely  designed,  being  traced 
with  the  pencil  in  a  red  colour  on  the  wall,  as  may  still  be 
seen,  and  this  mode  of  proceeding  was  the  only  cartoon 
which  our  old  masters  (for  the  greater  rapidity  in  the  exe- 
cution of  their  frescoes)  were  wont  to  make.^  They  first 
distributed  the  different  portions  of  the  work  over  the  wall, 

31  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  do  not  consider  it  probable  that  Simone 
could  have  left  so  many  unfinished  works. 

32  These  pictures  are  lost. 

33  Certain  authors  accredit  all  these  figures  to  Simone  ;  others  give  the  Ma- 
donna and  Santa  Elisabetta  to  Lippo. 

3*  These  figures  are  particularly  fine  in  their  decorative  impression  and  colour 
effect. 

35  Simone  Martini  is  now  accredited  with  the  fine  series  of  frescoes  from  the 
life  of  Saint  Martin,  also  in  the  lower  church  of  Assisi  and  among  the  best 
works  of  the  trecento.  These  frescoes  are  ascribed  by  Vasari  to  Puccio 
Capanna. 

8«  All  have  perished. 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 


111 


tracing  all  they  desired  to  do  with  the  pencil,  after  a  small 
design  which  served  them  as  a  guide,  and  enlarging  each 
part  to  the  proportions  required,  as  the}^  proceeded.  And 
as  the  work  here  in  question  is  seen  to  have  been  thus  treated, 
so  many  others  in  various  places  have  been  executed  in  like 
manner,  and  when  the  colour  in  certain  cases  has  scaled  off, 
the  red  outlines  are  still  discerned  remaining  on  the  wall. 
But  to  return  to  Lippo.  This  artist  drew  tolerably  well,  as 
may  be  seen  in  our  book,  where  there  is  a  hermit  reading 
with  the  legs  crossed,  by  his  hand.  He  survived  Simon 
twelve  years,  executing  many  paintings,  for  all  parts  of 
Italy,  more  particularly  two  pictures  for  the  church  of  Santa 
Croce  in  Florence.^'  There  is  a  considerable  resemblance  in 
the  manner  of  these  two  brothers,  but  they  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  circumstance  that  Simon  inscribed  his  name 
at  the  foot  of  his  works  in  this  manner,  "  Simonis  Memmi 
Senensis  opus"  ;^  and  Lippo,  omitting  his  baptismal  name, 
and  caring  little  for  the  rudeness  of  his  Latinity,  as  follows  : 
Opus  Memmi  de  Senis  me  fecit. ''^  On  the  fagade  of  the 
chapter-house  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  besides  the  portraits 
of  Petrarch  and  Laura, of  which  we  have  before  spoken, 
Simon  Memmi  depicted  those  of  Cimabue,  of  Lapo  the 
architect,  and  of  Arnolfo  his  son,'*^  and  finally  that  of  him- 
self. The  pope  who  appears  in  this  story,  is  the  portrait  of 
Benedict  XL  of  Treviso,  a  brother  of  the  order  of  Preach- 

37  These  works  have  perished.  Lippo  probably  survived  Simone  thirteen 
years. 

Rumohr,  in  the  Ital.  ForscJiiingen^  II.,  p.  95,  denies  that  Simone  signed  his 
works  in  this  manner. 

3»  Simone  was  in  Avignon  in  1339.  The  alleged  portraits  of  Laura  now  ex- 
isting are  unauthentic.  The  one  shown  in  the  Laurentian  Library  wears  the 
costume  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Milanesi  names  the  following  pictures  as 
signed  by  Simone,  but  not  mentioned  by  Vasari :  Orvieto,  in  San  Domenico, 
a  Madonna  with  Saints  Peter,  Dominick,  Paul,  and  Mary  Magdalen  ;  Naples, 
in  San  Lorenzo  Maggiore,  Louis  of  Anjou  crowning  his  brother  Robert ;  Liv- 
erpool, Mary  and  Joseph  reproving  the  Child  Jesus  for  leaving  them  to  dispute 
with  the  Doctors  in  the  Temple  ;  Antwerp,  a  triptych  with  the  Crucifixion, 
the  Deposition,  and  the  Annunciation. 

*o  Died  in  1310. 


112  SIMONE  MARTIISri  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI 


ing  Friars/^  whose  likeness  had  long  before  been  brought  to 
Simon  by  G-iotto  his  master,  when  the  latter  returned  from 
the  court  of  that  pontiff,  who  held  his  state  in  Avignon.  In 
the  same  picture  is  the  portrait  of  Cardinal  Niccola  da 
Prato,  which  Simon  has  placed  beside  that  of  the  pope.  Car- 
dinal Niccola  being  in  Florence  at  the  time,  in  the  capacity 
of  papal  legate,  as  we  are  informed  by  Giovanni  Villani  in 
his  history.  On  the  tomb  of  Simon  was  placed  the  following 
epitaph :  8imoni  Memmio  pictorum  omnium  oimiis  mtatis 
celeierrimo,  vixit  ami.  60,  mens.  2,  d.  3. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  specimens  preserved  in  our  book 
that  Simon  was  not  particularly  excellent  in  design,  but 
nature  had  well  endowed  him  with  inventive  power,  and  he 
delighted  in  drawing  from  the  life  ;  ^'  ^  in  this  respect  he 
was  considered  so  much  the  best  master  of  his  time,  that 
Signer  Pandolfo  Malatesti  despatched  him  to  Avignon  for 
the  purpose  of  painting  Messer  Francesco  Petrarca,^^  at 

4>  Benedict  XII.  rather,  who  was  in  the  papal  chair  from  1334  to  1343,  and 
under  whom  Simone  and  Lippo  worked  at  Avignon. 

42  Ghiberti  makes  no  mention  of  Simone  being  a  pupil  of  Giotto. 

43  In  a  fresco  at  Assisi  Simone  painted  the  emperor  in  Roman  costume 
crowned  with  laurel  and  seated  on  a  throne,  showing  that  the  study  of  an- 
tiquity was  cultivated  even  among  the  precursors  of  the  Renaissance.  See 
M.  Miintz,  Les  Primitifs^  p.  226. 

44  The  pupils  and  associates  of  Simone  Martini  were  Lippo  Memmi  and  Fra 
Martino. 

45  We  have  no  authentic  portrait  of  Simone  Martini,  but  Petrarch  likens  him, 
on  the  score  of  ugliness,  to  Giotto. 

46  Petrarch,  the  greatest  man  of  his  time,  said,  "I  have  known  two  excel- 
lent artists,  Giotto  of  Florence  and  Simone  of  Siena."  And  these  two 
famous  painters  may  almost  represent  the  male  and  female  principle  in  the 
art  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  Giotto  robust,  dramatic,  daring ;  Simone  deli- 
cate, conservative,  poetic  ;  both  of  them  intensely  sincere ;  both,  if  judged 
superficially,  very  similar,  because  controlled  by  the  conventionalities  of  the 
trecento.  But  compare  one  of  the  great  frescoes  of  Giotto  in  the  lower  church 
of  Assisi  or  the  Arena  at  Padua  with  the  lunette  of  Simone  which  fills  one  end 
of  the  main  hall  in  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  of  Siena.  Giotto,  like  a  trecento 
Raphael  or  Michelangelo,  has  thrown  aside  all  superfluous  ornament ;  Simone's 
fresco,  on  the  other  hand,  is  almost  an  expanded  miniature,  yet  it  is  grand 
and  lovely  at  once  and  a  very  ideal  decoration.,  intensely  decorative  to  its  every 
detail.  So,  too,  in  the  Assisi  lower  church,  his  half-length  saints  are  even 
more  out  of  drawing  than  the  least  skilful  of  Giotto's,  but  they  are  delicate, 


SIMONE  MARTINI  AND  LIPPO  MEMMI  113 


the  request  of  whom  Simon  Memmi,  so  greatly  to  his  own 
honour,  then  executed  the  portrait  of  Madonna  Laura.  . 

thoughtful,  beautifully  rich  in  colour,  and  completely  decorative.  His  St. 
Martin  series  is  very  interesting  and  ranks  among  his  best  vv^orks,  but  in  it  he 
is  greatly  inferior  to  Giotto  in  simplicity  and  directness  of  composition.  M. 
Lafenestre  {La  Peinture  Italienne^Yoi.  I.)  calls  hira  an  exquisite,  delighting  in 
jewels  of  price  and  embroidered  stuffs,  an  archasologist,  borrowing  liberally 
from  antique  costume  and  accessories.  He  is  the  worthy  Sienese  counterpart 
of  the  Tuscan  Giotto,  standing  to  him  in  the  fourteenth  century  something  as 
Botticelli  stands  to  Ghirlandajo  in  the  fifteenth. 


TADDEO  GADDI/  FLORENTINE  PAINTER 


[Bom  about  1300  ;  died  1366.] 

TO  reward  talent  largely,  and  to  honour  those  who 
possess  it,  wherever  they  may  be  found,  is,  without 
doubt,  an  excellent,  useful,  and  praiseworthy  action ; 
for  there  are  many  minds,  which  might  remain  dormant,  if 
left  without  stimulus,  but  which,  being  excited  by  this  al- 
lurement, put  forth  all  their  efforts,  not  only  for  the  ac- 
quirement of  their  art,  but  to  attain  the  utmost  excellence 
therein  ;  whereby  they  advance  themselves  to  a  useful  and 
creditable  station,  doing  honour  to  their  country  at  the 
same  time,  and  securing  glory  to  their  name,  as  well  as 
riches  and  nobility  to  their  descendants,  who,  from  such 
beginnings,  often  rise  to  the  highest  and  noblest  condition, 
as  happened  to  those  of  Taddeo  Gaddi,  in  consequence  of 
his  works. 

This  Taddeo,  son  of  Gaddo  Gaddi,  the  Florentine,  was  the 
godson  of  Giotto  ;  and,  after  the  death  of  his  father  Gaddo, 
was  the  disciple  of  that  master,  with  whom  he  continued 
twenty-four  years.  This  we  are  told  by  Cennino  di  Drea 
Cennini,  a  painter  of  Colle  di  Valdelsa,^  who  further  re- 

'  His  name  was  Taddeo  di  Gaddo  Gaddi. 

2  The  following  is  Vasari's  text  from  the  Life  of  Agnolo  Gaddi  :  "  Cennino 
di  Drea  Cennini,  of  Colle  di  Valdelsa,  likewise  studied  painting  under  Agnolo 
Gaddi,  and  being  a  devoted  lover  of  his  art,  he  wrote  a  book  on  the  methods 
of  painting  in  fresco,  in  distemper,  and  in  every  vehicle  then  known,  with 
the  modes  of  painting  in  miniature,  and  the  manner  in  which  gold  is  applied 
in  all  these  varying  methods.  This  book  is  now  in  the  hands  of  Giuliano,  a 
goldsmith  of  Siena,  an  excellent  master  and  true  friend  of  the  arts.  In  the 
first  part  of  Cennini's  work,  the  author  has  treated  of  the  nature  of  colours, 
whether  minerals  or  earths,  as  he  had  himself  been  taught  by  his  master, 
Agnolo ;  desiring,  perhaps,  as  he  does  not  seem  to  have  succeeded  in  attaining 
to  any  great  eminence  in  painting,  at  least  to  make  himself  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  colours,  the  different  glues,  chalks,  grounds  for  fresco,  etc.,  with 


TADDEO  GADDI 


115 


lates,  that  on  the  death  of  Giotto,  Taddeo  Gaddi  was  con- 
sidered the  first  in  the  art,  for  judgment,  genius,  and  other 
artistic  qualities,  being  superior  in  most  of  these  to  all  his 
fellow-disciples.  The  first  works  of  Taddeo  were  executed 
with  a  facility,  which  was  received  from  nature,  rather  than 
acquired  by  art.  They  were  performed  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Croce,  in  Florence,  and  in  the  chapel  of  the  sacristy, 
where,  in  company  with  others,  (also  disciples  of  the  de- 
ceased Giotto,)  he  painted  stories  from  the  life  of  Santa 
Maria  Maddalena  ;  the  figures  of  these  works  are  very  fine, 
and  the  vestments,  after  the  fashion  of  those  times,  are  also 
beautiful  and  curious.^  In  the  chapel  of  the  Baroncelli 
and  Bandini,  for  which  Giotto  had  painted  a  picture  in 

the  properties  of  every  kind  of  vehicle  ;  he  further  discourses  of  such  colours 
as  are  injurious,  and  to  be  guarded  against  in  the  mixture  of  colours,  and 
in  short  of  many  other  matters,  concerning  which  no  more  need  be  said  here  ; 
all  those  details  which  were  held  to  be  rare  and  profound  secrets  in  Cennini's 
day  being  perfectly  well  known  to  all  artists  in  these  our  times.  But  I  will 
not  omit  to  remark,  that  Cennini  makes  no  mention  of  certain  earths,  such  as 
the  dark  terra  rossa,  nor  of  cinnabar  and  various  greens — perhaps  because 
they  were  not  then  in  use  ;  other  colours  were  in  like  manner  wanting  to  the 
painters  of  that  age,  as  umber  for  example,  yellow-lake  {giallo  saiito)^  the 
smalts,  both  for  oil  and  fresco  painting,  with  certain  yellows  and  greens,  all 
which  have  been  discovered  at  a  later  period.  Cennini  likewiKc  treats  of 
grinding  colours  in  oil,  to  make  red,  azure,  green,  and  other  grounds  of  difTer- 
ent  kinds ;  he  speaks  of  the  mordants,  used  in  the  application  of  gold  also, 
but  not  as  applied  to  figures. "  Cennini's  work  is  a  technical  treatise ;  he 
does  not  once  allude  to  the  theory  of  art  or  give  rules  for  composition. 
Three  manuscripts  of  Cennini's  work  exist,  one  in  the  Laurentian  Library, 
Florence,  a  second  in  the  Riccardiana  in  the  same  city,  and  a  third  in  the 
Vatican.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Gaetano  and  Carlo  Milanesi,  Florence, 
1859.  There  is  an  English  translation  by  Mrs.  Merrifield,  London,  1844,  from 
an  edition  annotated  by  Cavaliere  Tambroni.  The  editor  and  the  trans- 
lator show  that  Vasari  had  not  read  Cennini's  treatise  when  he  wrote  his  lives. 
Cennini's  work  commences  as  follows:  "Here  begins  the  book  on  the  art, 
made  and  composed  by  Cennino  da  Colle,  in  the  reverence  of  God,  and  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  and  of  St.  Eustachius,  and  of  St.  Francis  and  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  and  of  all  the  Saints  of  God,  and  in  the  reverence  of  Giotto,  of 
Taddeo,  and  of  Agnolo  the  master  of  Cennino,  and  for  the  utility  and  good 
and  advantage  of  those  who  would  attain  perfection  in  the  arts. " 

Cennini,  born  probably  in  1350,  finished  his  book  in  the  debtors'  prison 
of  the  Stinche  in  1437. 

3  These  are  in  the  Cappella  Rinuccini  and  are  by  Giovanni  da  Caversajo, 
called  Giovanni  da  Milano. — See  Milanesi. 


116 


TADDEO  GADDI 


distemper,  Taddeo  executed  certain  frescoes,  representing 
stories  from  the  Life  of  the  Virgin  ;  these  he  did  entirely 
alone,  and  they  were  considered  extremely  beautiful.'^  He 
afterwards  painted  the  story  of  Christ  disputing  with  the 
Doctors  in  the  Temple,  over  the  door  of  the  same  sacristy  ; 
but  this  work  was  nearly  ruined,  when  Cosmo  de'  Medici, 
the  elder,  built  the  noviciate,  the  chapel  and  the  parlour 
in  front  of  the  sacristy,  a  stone  cornice  having  then  been 
placed  over  the  door.^  In  the  same  church  Taddeo  Gad- 
di  painted  the  chapel  of  the  Bellacci  in  fresco,  as  also  that 
of  St.  Andrew,  which  is  near  to  one  of  the  three  chapels 
decorated  by  Giotto  himself.  The  subjects  represented  in 
the  chapel  of  St.  Andrew  were,  Christ  calling  Peter  and 
Andrew  from  their  Nets,  with  the  Crucifixion  of  the  lat- 
ter Apostle  :  a  work  highly  praised  at  the  time,  and  which 
has  been  equally  commended  in  our  own  days.®  Over  the 
side  door,  and  near  the  burial-place  of  Carlo  Marsupini  of 
Arezzo,  Taddeo  executed  another  fresco,  representing  a 
dead  Christ,  with  the  Maries  ;  this  was  also  greatly  ad- 
mired, as  was  a  painting  of  St.  Francis,  likewise  in  fresco, 
placed  above  the  crucifixion  of  Donate,  and  representing 
the  saint  at  the  moment  when,  appearing  in  the  air,  he  is 
performing  the  miracle  of  restoring  to  life  a  boy,  who  has 
been  killed  by  falling  from  a  high  terrace.  In  this  painting 
the  artist  has  introduced  the  portraits  of  his  master,  Giotto, 
of  the  poet  Dante,  of  Guido  Cavalcanti,  and,  as  some  say,  of 
himself.^  He  executed  many  other  figures,  for  different  parts 
of  the  same  church,  all  which  are  known  to  painters  by 
their  manner.  For  the  confraternity  of  the  church,  Taddeo 
painted  a  most  admirable  Deposition  from  the  Cross,  in  the 
oratory  which  stands  at  the  corner  of  the  Via  del  Crocifisso  ; 
and  in  the  cloister  of  Santo  Spirito  he  executed  two  stories 
in  the  arches,  near  the  chapter-house.    One  of  these  repre- 

*  The  authorship  of  Taddeo  in  these  frescoes,  doubted  by  some  critics,  is 
endorsed  by  Milanesi,  and  admitted  by  most  writers.  They  were  painted 
1332-1338,  and  are  very  like  Giotto's  work,  but  are  less  concentrated  in  com- 
position. 

^    ^»  8  Since  destroyed. 


TADDEO  GADDI 


117 


sents  Judas  betraying  Christ,  the  other  is  a  Last  Supper. 
Over  the  door  of  the  refectory,  in  the  same  convent,  this 
master  painted  a  Crucifixion,  with  several  Saints  ;  and  these 
figures,  compared  with  those  of  others  who  laboured  in  the 
same  place,  make  it  obvious  that  Taddeo  was  a  faithful 
imitator  of  the  manner  of  Giotto,  which  he  always  held  in 
the  highest  estimation.  In  the  church  of  San  Stefano  del 
Ponte  Vecchio,  Taddeo  painted  the  high  altar  and  predella, 
with  infinite  care.^  He  also  executed  a  very  good  work  in 
the  oratory  of  San  Michele  in  Or  to,  the  subject  a  Dead 
Christ,  mourned  over  by  the  Maries,  and  devoutly  placed 
in  the  sepulchre  by  Nicodemus.^^  In  the  church  of  the 
Servites,  he  decorated  the  chapel  of  San  Niccolo,  whicli 
belongs  to  the  Palagi,  with  stories  from  the  life  of  that 
saint.  In  one  of  these  he  has  proved  himself  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  fury  of  a  stormy  sea,  and  the  force  of  tempests, 
by  the  judicious  and  effective  manner  in  which  he  has  de- 
picted a  barque  tossed  on  the  waves  :  the  mariners  are  cast- 
ing forth  their  merchandise  to  lighten  the  ship,  while  S. 
Nicholas,  appearing  in  the  air,  delivers  them  from  their 
peril.  This  work  having  given  great  satisfaction,  and  been 
highly  praised,  caused  the  master  to  be  invited  to  paint  the 
chapel  of  the  high  altar  in  the  same  church  ;  lie  there  rep- 
resented stories  in  fresco,  from  the  Life  of  Our  Lady  ;  Avith 
a  picture  in  distemper,  also  of  the  Virgin,  surrounded  by 
many  Saints,  and  all  painted  with  infinite  animation.  In 
the  lower  part  of  the  same  picture,  he  represented  other 
stories,  from  the  Life  of  the  Virgin,  in  small  figures,  of 
which  I  need  not  make  more  particular  mention,  because 
the  whole  work  was  destroyed  in  the  year  1407;  when  Ludo- 
vico,  marquis  of  Mantua,  built  the  tribune,  which  is  still 

»  According  to  Milanesi  the  Deposition  from  the  Cross,  the  pictures  in  the 
cloister  of  the  Santo  Spirito,  and  the  altar  of  San  Stefano  have  all  been  de- 
stroyed. There  is  an  entombment  in  the  Academy  of  Florence  assigned  to 
Taddeo  Gaddi,  but  it  is  considered  by  Messrs.  Crowe  and  CavalcascUe  to  be 
by  Lorenzo  di  Niccolo  Gerini. 

1**  The  picture  from  San  Michele  (now  the  oratory  of  San  Carlo)  is  in  the 
Florentine  Academy. 


118 


TADDEO  GADDI 


there,  with  the  choir  for  the  monks,  both  erected  after  the 
design  of  Leon  Battista  Alberti.  The  picture  was  then 
transferred  to  the  chapter-house  of  the  convent/^  in  the 
refectory  of  which,  and  immediately  over  the  seats,  our 
artist  painted  a  Last  Supper,  with  a  Crucifixion,  and  various 
figures  of  saints  above  it.^^  Having  completed  this  work, 
the  master  was  summoned  to  Pisa,  where  he  painted  the 
principal  chapel  of  San  Francesco,  for  Gherardo  and  Bo- 
naccorso  Gambacorti ;  the  subject  being,  events  from  the 
life  of  the  saint,  with  others  from  the  lives  of  St.  A"ndrew 
and  St.  Nicholas.  These  paintings  were  in  fresco,  and  ex- 
tremely well  coloured.  On  the  ceiling  and  fagade  of  the 
same  chapel,  the  confirmation  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis, 
by  Pope  Honorius,  is  depicted  ;  and  here  Taddeo  himself  is 
portrayed  from  the  life,  wearing  a  sort  of  hood  wrapped 
round  his  head.^^  At  the  foot  of  the  painting  are  inscribed 
the  following  words  : 

Magister  Taddeus  Gaddus  de  Florentia  pinxit  banc  historiam 
Sancti  Francisci,  et  Sancti  Andrese,  et  Sancti  Nicolai,  anno  Domini 
MCCCXLii,  de  mensi*  Augusti." 

In  the  cloister  of  the  same  convent,  Taddeo  also  painted 
the  Virgin,  with  the  child  in  her  arms — a  fresco  of  admira- 
ble colouring  ;  and  in  the  midst  of  the  church,  to  the  left  of 
the  spectator,  is  the  bishop  St.  Louis,  seated,  while  San 
Gherardo  da  Villamagna,  who  had  been  a  brother  of  the 
order  of  St.  Francis,  seems  recommending  a  certain  Fra 
Bartolommeo,  then  guardian  of  the  convent,  to  his  protec- 
tion.   The  figures  of  this  work  were  all  drawn  from  nature  ; 

*  The  last  word  but  one  of  this  inscription  is  written  mense  in  Milanesi's 
edition. 

11  These  pictures  from  the  church  of  the  Servites  have  disappeared. 

12  The  Last  Supper  and  Crucifixion  were  repainted  by  Santi  di  Tito  and 
again  restored  in  modern  times. 

13  Painted  in  1342-44.  Only  the  vaulting  has  escaped  whitewashing  ;  it  rep- 
resents the  first  founders  of  the  religious  orders. 

1*  Grassi  claims  that  a  gigantic  head  of  the  Virgin  preserved  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  Pisa  is  a  fragment  of  this  fresco. 


TADDEO  GADDI 


119 


they  are,  consequently,  full  of  animation,  and  very  graceful, 
with  a  simplicity  of  manner  preferable  in  many  respects  to 
the  style  of  Giotto  himself.  The  expression  of  entreaty,  of 
gladness,  of  grief,  and  other  similar  emotions,  more  particu- 
larly, were  rendered  with  infinite  truth,  and  the  facility  of 
elfecting  this  is  one  from  which  great  honour  redounds  to 
the  painter. 

Having  returned  to  Florence,  Taddeo  continued  the  works 
of  Orsanmichele,  for  the  commune  of  the  city,  and  refounded 
the  columns  of  the  Loggia  :  for  these  he  used  stone,  dressed 
and  hewn,  in  place  of  the  bricks  of  which  they  had  previ- 
ously been  formed,  but  without  altering  the  design,  left  by 
Arnolfo,  who  had  directed  that  spacious  magazines  should 
be  prepared  above  the  Loggia,  with  vaults,  for  storing  the 
reserves  of  grain  laid  up  by  the  people  and  commune  of 
Florence.  And  to  the  end  that  this  work  might  be  com- 
pleted, the  guild  of  Porta  Santa  Maria,  to  whom  the  charge 
of  the  fabric  had  been  entrusted,  commanded  that  the  tolls 
of  the  corn-market,  the  tax  of  the  piazza,  and  other  imposts 
of  very  little  importance,  should  be  made  over  to  the  build- 
ing. But,  what  was  of  more  consequence,  it  was  further 
ordained,  and  with  great  judgment,  that  each  of  the  guilds 
of  Florence  should  construct  a  column  at  its  own  charges, 
and  should  furthermore  place  a  statue  of  its  patron  saint  in 
a  niche  of  the  same.  It  was,  moreover,  decreed,  that  every 
year,  on  the  festival  of  each  saint,  tlie  syndics  of  the  respec- 
tive guilds  should  make  a  collection,  standing  each  by  his 
own  column  during  the  whole  day,  for  that  purpose,  with 
standard  elevated  and  ensigns  displayed.  Such  offerings  as 
were  made  to  the  Virgin  herself,  however,  were  still  reserved 
for  the  relief  of  the  suffering  poor. 

In  the  year  1333,  a  great  inundation  had  destroyed  the 
defences  of  the  Rubaconte  bridge,  thrown  down  the  castle  of 
Altaf route,  greatly  injured  the  old  bridge,  leaving  only  two 
of  its  piers  standing  ;  the  same  flood  totidly  ruined  the  bridge 
of  the  Trinity,  one  pier  only  excepted,  and  that  was  miserably 

>6  The  convent  was  suppressed  and  the  works  have  perhaps  perished. 


120 


TADDEO  GADDI 


shattered.  The  bridge  of  Carraja  was  also  much  injured, 
and  the  flood-gates  of  Ognissanti  broken  down.  In  this 
state  of  things,  the  inhabitants  dwelling  beyond  the  Arno 
were  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  crossing  to  their  homes  in 
boats.  It  was,  therefore,  determined  by  those  who  then 
ruled  the  city,  that  these  evils  should  be  amended  ;  where- 
fore, they  called  on  Taddeo  Gaddi — his  master,  Giotto, 
being  then  at  Milan — to  prepare  a  model  and  design  for  the 
bridge,  now  called  the  Ponte  Vecchio,  charging  him  to  con- 
struct it  with  all  possible  beauty  as  well  as  solidity.  This, 
Taddeo  at  once  proceeded  to  do  ;  he  spared  no  cost  and  no 
labour,  erecting  those  mighty  piers  and  those  magnificent 
arches,  all  of  hewn  stone,  on  which  now  stand  the  twenty- 
two  shops  placed  on  each  side  of  the  bridge.  There  are 
forty-four  in  all,  and  the  commune  derives  a  large  revenue 
from  them,  their  occupants  paying  800  florins  yearly  for 
rent.^^  The  width  of  the  bridge,  from  one  side  to  the  other, 
is  thirty-two  braccia,  that  of  the  central  road  sixteen  ;  the 
shops  are  eight  braccia  wide.  The  cost  of  this  fabric  was 
72,000  gold  florins,*  and  if  Taddeo  merited  and  obtained 
praise  for  the  work  in  that  day,  no  less  does  he  deserve  it  in 
the  present,  when  he  has,  indeed,  been  more  than  ever  com- 
mended; for,  to  say  nothing  of  other  floods,  this  bridge  was 
not  in  the  slightest  degree  affected  by  that  which  happened 
on  the  13th  of  September,  1557,  when  the  bridge  of  Santa 
Trinita  was  totally  ruined  ;  that  of  Carraja  had  two  of  its 
arches  destroyed,  and  the  Rubaconte  bridge  was  almost  en- 
tirely washed  away,  much  damage  being  also  sustained  by 
other  parts  of  the  city,  from  the  same  inundation.  No  man 
having  judgment  in  these  matters,  can  fail  to  be  astonished 
that  the  Ponte  Vecchio  should  have  sustained  the  whole 
force  of  the  waters,  with  that  of  the  heavy  beams  and  other 
wreck,  brought  against  it  by  incessant  inundations,  and  yet 
given  no  sign  of  yielding,  but  remained  immovable  through 

*  60,000  (sessanta  mild)  gold  florins  according  to  the  Milanesi  edition. 
i«  The  shops  still  remain  ;  above  them  runs  the  corridor  which  Vasari  built 
to  connect  the  Palazzo  Vecchio  with  the  Palazzo  Pitti. 


TABDEO  GADDI 


121 


all  these  assaults.  About  the  same  time,  the  bridge  of  Santa 
Trinita  was  also  founded  by  Taddeo  Gaddi,  at  the  cost  of 
26,000  florins,*  but  not  with  similar  good  fortune.^'  This 
was  completed  in  the  year  1346  ;  and  I  say,  not  with  equal 
success,  because,  having  been  differently  constructed  from 
the  Ponte  Vecchio,  it  was  entirely  destroyed  in  the  flood 
just  alluded  to,  namely  that  of  1557.  The  stone  wall  which 
strengthens  the  bank  near  San  Gregorio,  was  built  under 
the  direction  of  Taddeo,  about  the  same  time,  and  was  de- 
fended by  strong  piles  ;  two  piers  of  the  bridge  being  taken 
to  enlarge  the  platform  on  the  side  of  the  i^iazza  de'  Mozzi, 
and  there  this  master  constructed  the  mills  still  to  be  seen 
at  that  place.  While  all  these  works  were  proceeding,  after 
the  designs  and  under  the  direction  of  Taddeo,  he  did  not 
neglect  his  paintings,  and  among  other  works  he  completed 
the  Tribime  of  the  old  Mercmizia,  where  he  depicted  the 
six  figures  which  represent  the  jorincipal  persons  composing 
that  court :  they  are  looking  at  Truth,  who  is  pourtrayed  in 
the  act  of  tearing  out  the  tongue  of  Falsehood.*^  The  for- 
mer is  covered  with  a  transparent  veil,  while  the  latter  is 
wrapped  in  black  vestments  ;  both  are  females,  and  the 
whole  work  exhibits  considerable  force  of  invention.  Be- 
neath these  figures  are  the  following  lines  : — 

'*  La  pura  Verita,  per  nbbidire 
Alia  Santa  Giustizia  che  non  tarda, 
Cava  la  lingua  alia  falsa  bugiarda." 

And  under  the  picture  itself  is  written  as  follows  : — 

*'  Taddeo  dipinse  qnesto  bel  rigestro 
Discepol  fu  di  Giotto  il  buon  maestro." 

Taddeo  was  also  employed  at  Arezzo,  where  he  received  a 

*  20,000  {ventimila)  florins  in  the  Milanesi  edition. 

1^  The  bridge  of  the  Santa  Trinita  attributed  to  Taddeo,  afterwards  de- 
stroyed by  flood,  may  be  seen  in  the  background  of  a  fresco  by  Ghirlandajo 
in  the  Sassetti  chapel  of  the  church  of  La  Trinity.  Tlie  bridge  was  rebuilt 
in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Ammanati. 

18  These  frescoes  have  disappeared. 


122 


TADDEO  GABDI 


commission  for  several  works  in  fresco,  which  he  executed 
admirably,  with  the  assistance  of  his  pupil  Giovanni  da 
Milano.  One  of  these  paintings  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
church  belonging  to  the  confraternity  of  Spirito  Santo  ;  it  is 
on  the  wall  near  the  high  altar,  the  subject  a  Crucifixion. 
This  work  has  been  much  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of 
the  composition  and  method  of  treatment.  The  thieves  are 
seen  fastened  to  their  crosses  on  each  side  ;  there  are  many 
horses  in  the  picture,  with  certain  figures,  in  whose  counte- 
nances the  rage  of  the  Jews  is  most  eloquently  expressed. 
Others  are  drawing  down  the  limbs  of  the  Saviour,  with  a 
cord ;  offering  the  sponge,  or  otherwise  occupied ;  as,  for 
example,  Longinus,  who  pierces  the  side  of  Jesus  with  his 
spear.  There  are,  besides,  the  soldiers  casting  lots  for  the 
vestments  ;  hope  and  fear  are  well  expressed  in  the  faces  of 
all,  as  they  watch  the  throwing  of  the  dice  :  one  awaiting  his 
turn  stands  armed,  and  in  an  attitude  of  great  restraint  and 
uneasiness  ;  but  to  the  inconvenience  of  this,  he  is  obviously 
insensible,  or  disregards  it  in  the  excitement  of  the  game. 
A  second,  with  raised  eyebrows  and  eyes  and  mouth  wide 
open,  looks  at  the  dice  as  if  suspecting  fraud,  but  the  expres- 
sion of  his  face  plainly  evinces  the  eagerness  of  his  desire  for 
victory.  The  third  is  about  to  throw  the  dice  :  he  has  spread 
out  the  garment  on  the  ground,  and  regards  it  with  a  smile, 
as  assured  of  winning,  while  his  lifted  arm  quivers  in  the 
act  of  casting  the  lot.  In  addition  to  these  paintings,  there 
are  others  on  the  walls  of  the  church,  representing  events 
from  the  life  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  Works  of  Taddeo 
are  also  to  be  found  in  other  buildings  of  Arezzo,  and  are  at 
once  perceived  by  good  judges  to  be  from  his  hand.  In  the 
episcopal  church,  moreover,  behind  the  high  altar,  there  are 
stories  from  the  life  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,^  so  admirably 
done,  whether  as  regards  design  or  execution,  that  one  can- 
not but  regard  them  with  astonishment.    In  the  church  of 

»9  All  these  frescoes  have  perished. 

20  The  stories  from  the  life  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  still  remain,  but  in  a 
very  bad  condition. 


TADDEO  GADDI 


123 


St.  Augustine,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Sebastian,  near  the  sac- 
risty, Taddeo  painted  the  history  of  that  martyr,  as  also  a 
Disputation  of  Christ  in  the  Temple  ;  both  so  finely  treated 
and  so  exquisitely  finished,  that  none  can  behold  the  grace, 
beauty,  and  variety  of  excellence  displayed  in  these  works, 
without  extreme  admiration  and  surprise. '-^^ 

In  the  church  of  the  Sasso  della  Yernia,  in  Casentino, 
Taddeo  Gaddi  painted  the  chapel,  in  which  St.  Francis  re- 
ceived the  stigmata  ;  he  was  assisted  in  the  minor  details  of 
the  picture  by  Jacopo  di  Casentino,  who  became  the  dis- 
ciple of  Taddeo,  in  consequence  of  that  master's  visit  to 
Casentino,  on  the  occasion  here  alluded  to.  Having  com- 
pleted this  undertaking,  Taddeo,  accompanied  by  Giovanni, 
the  Milanese,  returned  to  Florence,  in  which  city  and  its 
neighbourhood  he  executed  many  works  of  importance  ;  and 
in  process  of  time  his  gains  became  so  large,  that  as  he  con- 
stantly accumulated  these  sums,  and  was  a  man  of  prudent 
and  regular  life,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  wealth  and 
high  position  afterwards  enjoyed  by  his  family. 

The  chapter- house  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  was  also  paint- 
ed by  Taddeo  Gaddi,  who  received  the  commission  for  tliis 
work  from  the  prior,  by  whom  he  is  said  to  have  been  fur- 
nished with  the  composition  of  the  picture  likewise.  It  is 
true,  that  as  the  work  was  very  large,  and  as  the  chapter- 
house of  Santo  Spirito  had  just  been  finished  and  given  to 
public  view,  by  Simon  Memmi,  wlio  had  painted  it  to  his 
great  glory,  at  the  time  when  the  bridges  were  built ;  the 
prior  conceived  a  wish  to  entrust  Simon  with  one-half  of  the 
undertaking,  whereupon  he  consulted  Taddeo  respecting  the 
whole  affair.  He  found  the  latter  perfectly  willing  to  ac- 
cede to  this  arrangement,  Taddeo  having  a  great  love  for 
Simon,  who  had  been  his  fellow-disciple  under  Giotto,^  and 
had  ever  continued  his  valued  friend  and  affectionate  compan- 
ion. Oh  !  truly  noble  spirits  !  Ye,  who  without  envious  em- 
ulation or  ambition,  did  indeed  regard  eacli  other  with  broth- 
erly affection,  rejoicing  each  in  the  honour  and  advantage  of 

21  These  works  are  lost.  Simone  was  never  a  pupil  of  Giotto. 


124 


TADDEO  GADDI 


his  friend,  as  in  his  own  !  The  work,  then,  was  thereupon 
divided — three  of  the  walls  being  given  to  Simon,  as  we 
have  related  in  his  life  ;  the  fourth,  with  the  vaulted  ceiling, 
being  reserved  for  Taddeo,^^  who  divided  the  latter  into  four 
compartments,  or  sections,  in  accordance  with  the  form  of 
the  ceiling.  In  the  first  of  these  divisions  was  represented 
the  Eesurrection  of  Christ,  and  in  this  painting  the  artist 
seems  to  have  attempted  to  produce  an  emission  of  light 
from  the  splendour  of  the  glorified  body  itself ;  this  we  per- 
ceive by  the  effects  visible  on  a  town  and  certain  masses  of 
rock,  which  form  part  of  the  accessories.  But  Taddeo  did 
not  pursue  the  idea  with  respect  to  the  figures  and  other 
portions  of  the  pictures,  warned,  perhaps,  by  the  difficulties 
which  he  anticipated,  and  doubtful  of  his  ability  to  conduct 
this  project  to  a  successful  conclusion.  In  the  second  com- 
partment, he  represented  Jesus  delivering  St.  Peter  from 
shipwreck  :  the  apostles,  who  manage  the  boat  in  this  pict- 
ure, are  certainly  very  beautiful ;  and  among  other  things 
may  be  remarked,  a  figure  standing  on  the  shore  and  fishing 
with  a  line  (a  subject  previously  treated  by  Giotto  in  the 
Navicella  of  St.  Peter's),  in  which  there  is  extraordinary 
force  and  animation.    In  the  third  section  of  the  ceiling  is 

23  The  chapter-house  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  now  called  the  Chapel  of  the 
Spaniards,  presents  one  of  the  most  curious,  typical,  and  beautiful  decorative 
ensembles  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Milanesi  does  not  believe  that  either 
Simone  or  Taddeo  painted  here,  and  several  of  the  frescoes  attributed  to 
Simone  are  given  by  Milanesi  to  Andrea  da  Firenze,  the  artist  of  the  San  Ran- 
ieri  series  in  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  ad- 
mit Taddeo  as  designer  of  some  of  the  pictures,  but  claim  that  they  were  ex- 
ecuted by  other  and  inferior  hands.  The  same  writers  say  that  if  Andrea  de 
Florentia  painted  the  frescoes  attributed  to  Simone  in  the  Pisan  Campo  San- 
to he  also  executed  those  in  the  Cappellone  degli  Spagnuoli  in  Santa  Maria 
Novella.  They  characterise  the  frescoes  as  second-class  works  by  pupils  of 
the  Sienese  and  Florentine  schools,  and  as  "unworthy  of  the  high  praise 
which  has  ever  been  given  to  them." 

With  all  regard  for  the  great  erudition  of  the  critics,  it  should  be  said  that 
the  beauty  and  importance  of  the  Chapel  of  the  Spaniards  depend  not  upon 
its  detail  but  upon  its  decorative  effect  as  a  whole ;  in  this  respect  it  is  a  re- 
markably complete  exposition  of  what  the  fourteenth  century  painters  under- 
stood as  a  decorative  scheme  for  an  entire  chapel  carried  out  at  one  time  and 
for  a  well-defined  purpose. 


TADDEO  GADDI 


125 


the  Ascension  of  Christ,  and  the  fourth  represents  the  de- 
scent of  the  Holy  Spirit  :  in  this  picture  are  certain  Jews, 
seeking  to  press  through  the  doorway,  who  exhibit  much 
beauty  and  variety  of  attitude.^  On  the  wall  beneath,  the 
master  has  depicted  the  seven  sciences,  with  their  names, 
and  an  appropriate  figure,  or  group  of  figures,  under  each. 
Grammar  is  portrayed  in  the  form  of  a  woman  instructing 
a  child,  the  writer  Donatus  being  seated  at  her  feet.  After 
Grammar  follows  Rhetoric,  and  at  her  feet  is  a  figure,  which 
places  two  hands  on  different  books,  while  it  draws  a  third 
hand  from  beneath  its  mantle,  and  applies  it  to  its  mouth. 
Logic  has  a  serpent,  under  a  veil,  in  tlie  hand,  with  Zeno 
Eleates,  seated,  reading  at  the  feet.  Ai'ithmetic  holds  the 
tables  of  the  Abbacus  ;  Abraham,  the  inventor  of  which,  is 
seated  at  her  feet.  Music  has  the  appropriate  instruments 
around  her,  with  Tubalcain  seated  below  ;  he  is  striking  an  • 
anvil,  with  two  hammers,  and  is  listening  intently  to  the 
sounds  he  is  producing.  Geometry  has  the  square  and  com- 
pass, with  Euclid  beneath ;  and  Astronomy,  bearing  the 
celestial  globe  in  her  hand,  has  Atlas  under  her  feet.  The 
remainder  of  the  space  is  occupied'  by  seven  theologicjil 
sciences,  the  figure  beneath  each  representing  that  condition 
of  men  considered  most  appropriate — the  pope,  tlie  emper- 
or, kings,  cardinals,  dukes,  bishops,  marquises,  and  others. 
The  face  of  the  pope  in  this  series  is  the  portrait  of  Clement 
V.  In  the  middle  and  highest  place  is  St.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
who  had  been  devoted  to  the  study  of  all  these  sciences  ;  he 
has  certain  heretics  lying  beneath  his  feet,  as,  for  example, 
Arius,  Sabellius,  and  Averroes  ;  while  around  him  are,  Moses, 
Paul,  Jdm  the  Evangelist,  and  other  figures ;  above  whom 
are  the  three  theological  and  four  cardinal  virtues,  with 
many  other  figures  and  innumerable  accessories,  to  all  of 
which  Taddeo  has  given  infinite  grace  and  truth  of  expres- 

2*  The  Navicella^  the  Resurrection,  and  the  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are, 
according  to  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  by  Antonio  Veneziano,  from  de- 
signs of  Taddeo  Gaddi,  the  Ascension  is  by  another  and  inferior  pupil. 
Milanesi  readily  agrees  to  the  attribution  to  Andrea  da  Firenze  of  the  frescoes 
formerly  credited  to  Simone  Martini. 


126 


TADDEO  GADDI 


sion.  The  whole  work,  indeed,  may  be  considered  the  best^ 
as  to  composition,  that  Taddeo  has  left  us,  and  is  in  better 
preservation  also  than  any  other. 

In  the  same  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  this  artist 
painted  St.  Jerome  robed  in  the  vestments  of  a  cardinal,  he 
having  an  especial  devotion  to  that  saint,  and  having  chosen 
him  for  the  protector  of  his  house. ^  Accordingly,  at  a  later 
period,  Agnolo,  son  of  Taddeo,  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
caused  a  tomb  to  be  constructed  for  their  common  descend- 
ants beneath  this  painting ;  the  covering  of  the  tomb  was  of 
marble,  with  the  arms  of  the  Gaddi  family.  And  for  these 
descendants,  St.  Jerome  the  Cardinal,  moved  by  the  excel- 
lence of  Taddeo,  and  by  the  merits  of  his  posterity,  has 
obtained  from  God  the  most  honourable  offices  in  the 
Church,  such  as  bishoprics,  cardinalates,  and  deaneries  ; 
-  they  have  besides  been  frequently  clerks  of  the  pontifical 
chamber,  and  received  the  most  honoured  orders  of  knight- 
hood. All  which  descendants  of  Taddeo,  of  whatever  degree, 
have  constantly  esteemed  and  favored  the  followers  of  the 
fine  arts,  more  particularly  those  devoted  to  sculpture  and 
painting,  whom  they  have  ever  protected  and  aided  to  the 
utmost  of  their  power. 

At  the  age  of  fifty  Taddeo  v/as  attacked  by  violent  fever, 
and  departed  from  this  life  in  the  year  1350,  leaving  two 
sons,  Agnolo  and  Giovanni,  who  both  devoted  themselves  to 
painting,  and  whom  he  recommended  to  the  care  of  Jacopo 
of  Casentino  and  Giovanni  of  Milan,  entreating  the  first  to 
guard  their  morals  and  manners,  but  requiring  the  last  to 
instruct  them  in  matters  of  art.  This  Giovanni  ^  executed 
many  works  after  the  death  of  Taddeo,  among  others  a  pict- 

25  This  work  has  been  destroyed. 

26  Milanesi  states  that  documents  show  Taddeo  to  have  been  living  in  1366, 
and  another  document  of  the  end  of  the  same  year  proves  his  death  by  men- 
tioning his  wife  as  a  widow. 

2'  Milanesi,  Vol.  I.,  p.  584,  note  1,  cites  a  picture  signed  by  Giovanni  da  Mi- 
lano,  now  in  the  Florentine  Academy,  and  one  in  five  compartments,  now  in 
the  Communal  Gallery  of  Prato ;  the  latter  picture  was  described  by  Milanesi 
in  the  Valendario  Pratese^  anno  V. 


TADDEO  GADDI 


127 


ure  which  was  placed  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  on  the 
altar  of  San  Gherardo  da  Villamagna,  fourteen  years  after 
the  death  of  Taddeo.  The  painting  on  the  high  altar  of 
Ognissanti,  where  the  brotherhood  of  the  Umiliati  have 
their  seat,  is  likewise  by  his  hand,  and  was  considered  ex- 
tremely fine  ;  in  Assisi  also,  Giovanni  da  Milano  painted  a 
picture  for  the  tribune  of  the  high  altar,  a  crucifix  namely, 
with  the  Virgin  and  Santa  Clara.  On  the  front  and  side 
walls  of  the  apsis  he  painted  stories  from  the  life  of  Our 
Lady.  He  afterwards  repaired  to  Milan,  in  which  city  he 
produced  many  works  both  in  distemper  and  fresco,  and 
where  he  ultimately  died. 

Of  Taddeo,  then,  it  may  be  observed  that  he  constantly 
adhered  to  the  manner  of  Giotto,  but  we  cannot  affirm  that 
he  greatly  improved  that  manner,  except  in  the  colouring,  to 
which  he  gave  more  freshness  and  animation  than  had  been 
exhibited  by  Giotto ;  the  latter  had  so  diligently  laboured 
to  overcome  the  diificulties  and  ameliorate  the  methods  of 
proceeding  in  other  departments  of  the  art,  that  although 
he  gave  some  attention  to  this  also,  yet  the  grace  of  attaining 
what  he  sought  was  not  granted  to  him  ;  while  Taddeo 
Gaddi,  having  seen  by  what  means  Giotto  had  been  facili- 
tated on  one  point  or  impeded  on  another,  had  profited  by 
these  instructions,  and  had  afterwards  found  time  to  proceed 
in  the  way  pointed  out  to  him,  and  in  some  degree  to  amel- 
iorate the  practice  of  colouring. 

Taddeo  was  buried  by  his  sons  Agnolo  and  Giovanni  in 
the  first  cloister  of  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  and  in  the 
sepulchre  which  he  had  himself  prepared  for  his  father 
Gaddo  ;  he  was  honoured  by  many  copies  of  verse  written  to 
his  praise  by  the  virtuosi  of  the  time,  and  his  memory  was 
held  in  esteem  as  that  of  a  man  whose  life  had  been  highly 
meritorious,  and  who,  to  say  nothing  of  his  paintings,  had 
conducted  many  useful  buildings  and  other  works  of  various 
kinds  to  a  successful  conclusion,  to  the  great  advantage  and 
convenience  of  his  native  city.  Among  these  works  may 
be  appropriately  mentioned  the  campanile  of  Santa  Maria 


128 


TADDEO  GADDI 


del  Fiore,  which  he  constructed  with  infinite  care  and  dil- 
igence, after  the  design  left  by  his  master  Giotto.^  The 
masonry  of  this  tower  was  so  well  executed,  that  better 
workmanship  could  not  possibly  be  performed,  nor  would  it 
be  easy  to  construct  a  tower  more  nobly,  whether  as  regards 
design,  ornament,  or  cost.^  The  epitaph  inscribed  to  the 
memory  of  Taddeo  was  as  follows  : 

**  Hoc  uno  dici  poterat  Florentia  felix 
Vivente  :  at  certa  est  nou  potuisse  mori." 

4  Milanesi  elaborates  in  a  long  commentary  his  reasons  for  believing  that 
Taddeo  Gaddi  did  not  build  either  Or  San  Michele  or  the  bridges.  Among  these 
reasons,  the  strongest  is  that  neither  Ghiberti  nor  any  contemporaneous  or 
early  author  mentions  Taddeo  as  an  architect,  far  less  attributes  any  special 
work  to  him.  Milanesi  suggested  Francesco  Talenti  as  architect  of  the  lower 
loggia  of  Or  San  Michele,  and  his  son  Simone  as  builder  of  the  upper  story 
after  the  closing  in  of  the  lower  arches  in  1380.  As  for  the  Campanile  of 
Giotto,  Antonio  Pucci,  a  contemporaneous  chronicler,  declares  that  Francesco 
Talenti  had  in  1351  carried  up  the  tower  to  its  last  windows.  Certain  Do- 
minican writers  claim  Fra  Giovanni  Campo,  of  their  order,  as  architect  of 
the  Santa  Trinita  bridge,  the  construction  of  which  was  allotted  by  the  Com- 
mune of  Florence  to  four  '"'"maestri  di pietr a among  whom  was  Neri  Fiora- 
vanti.  The  latter  master  together  with  Benci  di  Clone  figures  often  in  the 
architectural  records  of  the  time. 

^  Few  artists  have  been  so  hardly  treated  by  time,  documentary  evidence, 
and  special  criticism  as  Taddeo  Gaddi.  Time  has  destroyed  many  of  his 
frescoes,  documents  and  critics  have  taken  away  from  him  his  title  as  archi- 
tect of  the  Ponte  Vecchio,  the  Ponte  Santa  Trinita,  and  the  Campanile  of  San- 
ta Maria  del  Fiore.  He  is  famous,  however,  as  the  "favorite  pupil  of  Giotto  " 
and  as  a  painter  who  imitates  his  master  very  closely,  though  he  does  not 
equal  him  in  any  single  quality.  With  the  Giotteschi  it  is  difficult  to  single 
out  individual  characteristics  ;  relative  attenuation  of  his  figures  was  perhaps 
Taddeo's  marking  peculiarity.  Mr.  W.  J.  Stillman  makes  a  plea  for  this 
artist's  authorship  in  the  frescoes  of  the  Spanish  chapel,  and  even  in  the  Cam- 
panile there  is  nothing  to  absolutely  disprove  such  authorship,  but  the  bal' 
ance  of  evidence  seems  against  it.  Indeed  the  glory  of  the  Giotteschi  was 
like  a  conventual  property — it  was  rather  the  fame  of  the  school  than  of  the 
individual  that  was  attained,  and  frescoes  can  be  handed  about  from  one  to 
another  accredited  painter  without  much  certainty  or  profit.  The  Giotteschi 
at  last  turned  within  a  vicious  circle,  as  Miss  Violet  Paget  has  remarked  in  an 
admirable  essay  in  her  "Euphorion."  She  points  the  fact  that  giottesque 
art  attained  maturity  almost  immediately  because  so  little  was  required  of  it. 
It  was  asked  not  to  reproduce,  but  only  to  "  suggest  a  character,  a  situation, 
a  story."    To  the  Giottesco  a  figure  was  reduced  to  be  "the  mere  exponent  of 


TADDEO  GADDI 


129 


The  drawings  of  this  master  evince  great  boldness,  as  may 
be  seen  in  our  book,  where  we  have  the  story  which  he 
painted  for  the  chapel  of  Sant^  Andrea  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  drawn  by  his  hand. 

an  idea,"  to  the  man  of  the  later  Renaissance  it  was  interesting  as  a  "liv- 
ing organism  "  "an  animate  reality. "    Thus  Giottesque  art  "  reached  its  limits 
at  once  "  and  made  no  further  progress.     See,  for  a  long  and  excellent  di' 
cussion  of  the  subject,  Euphorion,  by  Vernon  Lee  (Miss  Violet  Paget). 

9 


ANDKBA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA,  FLORENTINE 
PAINTER,  SCULPTOR,  AND  AROHITEOT.i 

[Bom  1308 ;  died  1368.] 

Bibliography. — 11  Tdbernacolo  della  Madonna  d'  Orsanmichele^  Florence, 
1851.  Lasinio,  Pitture  del  Campo  Santo  di  Pisa.  Rosini,  Descrizione  delle 
Pitt7ire  del  Campo  Santo  di  Pisa,  1816.  Pietro  Franceschini,  Oratorio 
di  San  Michele  in  Orto  in  Firenze,  Florence,  1892.  Marcel  Reymond,  La 
SculiAure  Florentine  aux  XlVme  et  XVme  Si^cles,  series  of  articles  in 
the  Gazette  des  Beaiix  Arts,  1893-4.  Giorgio  Trenta,  U Inferno  di  Andrea 
Orcagua,  affresco  che  trovasi  nel  (Jampo  Santo  Pisano  in  relazione  colV  In- 
ferno di  Dante,  Pisa.  Beltrami,  Andrea  Orcagna  sarebbe  autore  di  un  di- 
segno  per  il  pulpito  nel  duomo  di  Orvieto?  Florence. 

WE  seldom  find  a  man  distinguishing  himself  in  one 
branch  of  art,  who  cannot  readily  acquire  the 
knowledge  of  others,  more  especially  of  those  im- 
mediately connected  with  that  to  which  his  attention  was 
first  devoted,  and  which  proceed,  so  to  speak,  from  the  same 
source.  We  have  a  case  in  point  exhibited  by  the  Floren- 
tine Orgagna,^  who  was  at  once  a  painter,  sculptor,  archi- 
tect, and  poet,  as  will  hereafter  appear.  Born  in  Florence, 
Andrea  commenced  the  study  of  sculpture  ^  while  still  but  a 
child,  under  Andrea  Pisano,  and  to  this  he  devoted  himself 
earnestly  for  some  years.  Subsequently,  being  desirous  of 
enriching  his  powers  of  invention  and  attaining  distinction 

1  Baron  Rumohr  has  shown  Orgagna  to  be  a  contraction  of  Arcagnuolo  (An- 
drea di  Clone  Arcagnuolo).  His  father's  name  is  not  found  in  the  registry  of 
the  goldsmiths. 

2  Orgagna  was  also  a  poet.  The  MSS.  of  his  sonnets  are  in  the  Maglia- 
becchian  and  Strozzi  libraries  in  Florence  ;  one  of  these  sonnets,  with  a  trans- 
lation by  W.  W.  Story,  is  printed  in  Perkins'  Tuscan  Sculptors,  III.,  190. 

^  Andrea  Orgagna's  first  profession  was  painting  ;  he  was  enrolled  as  a 
painter  in  1343,  and  as  a  sculptor  in  1353,  the  year  of  Andrea  Pisano's  death. 
It  is  thus  improbable  that  he  studied  long  with  the  latter.  Neri  Fioravante, 
who  becanae  his  surety,  may  also  have  been  his  master.    See  Milaneei, 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  OKGAGNA 


131 


in  the  composition  of  historical  works,  he  gave  the  most 
diligent  attention  to  the  practice  of  drawing,  and  herein 
he  was  powerfully  aided  by  Nature,  which  had  destined 
him  to  universality  of  attainment.  He  next,  as  one  effort 
usually  leads  to  another,  made  attempts  at  painting  in  col- 
ours, both  in  fresco  and  distemper,  wherein  he  succeeded  so 
well,  with  the  assistance  of  his  brother  Bernardo  Orgagna, 
that  he  was  taken  by  the  latter  to  paint  in  his  company  in 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  where,  in  the  principal 
chapel,  which  then  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Ricci,  the 
brothers  executed  together  the  life  of  Our  Lady.'*  When 
this  work  was  finished  it  was  considered  very  beautiful,  but 
no  long  time  after,  by  the  neglect  of  those  who  had  charge 
of  the  building,  the  roof  was  suffered  to  become  unsound, 
when  the  painting  was  injured  by  the  rains,  and  was  then 
put  into  the  state  in  which  we  now  see  it,  as  will  be  de- 
scribed in  its  proper  place  ;  let  it  suffice  for  the  present  to 
say  that  Domenico  Ghirlandajo,  by  whom  it  was  repainted, 
availed  himself  for  the  most  part  of  Orgagna^s  composition. 
In  the  same  church,  the  chapel  of  Strozzi,  which  is  near  to 
the  door  of  the  sacristy  and  belfry,  was  also  decorated  in 
fresco  by  Andrea  in  company  with  his  brother  Bernardo.^ 
On  one  of  the  walls  of  this  chapel,  to  which  you  ascend  by 
a  staircase  of  stone,  the  glory  of  Paradise  was  depicted  with 
all  the  Saints,  who  are  robed  in  the  various  vestments  and 
head-dresses  of  that  age  ;  on  the  opposite  wall  was  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  Inferno,  with  its  abysmal  dungeons,  circles 

*  These  frescoes  were  destroyed  and  replaced  by  those  of  Ghirlandajo. 
This  brother  was  named  Leonardo  and  not  Bernardo. 

6  There  are  two  Strozzi  chapels  in  Santa  Maria  Novella.  Orgagna's  work  is 
in  the  north  transept  and  is  approached  by  a  staircase.  The  Inferno,  which  is 
completely  repainted,  was,  according  to  Ghiberti,  executed  by  Leonardo,  Or- 
gagna's brother.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  think  it  probable  that  these 
works  were  painted  previous  to  1354.  The  Last  Judgment,  which  is  the  third 
subject,  is  much  damaged,  as  is  also  the  Paradise.  The  latter  is  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  shows  a  sense  of  beauty  of 
human  proportion  not  found  in  Giotto.  "Orgagna,"  says  M.  Marcel  Rey- 
mond,  "like  Donatello  and  Michelangelo,  was  graceful  and  elegant  when 
young,  poignant  and  dramatic  when  old." 


132 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


of  fire,  and  other  features,  described  by  Dante,  a  poet  whom 
Andrea  studied  most  carefully.  In  the  church  of  the  Ser- 
vites,  in  the  same  city  of  Florence/ this  master  painted  the 
chapel  of  the  Cresci  family  in  fresco,  and  also  in  company 
with  his  brother  Bernardo.^  In  San  Piero  Maggiore  he  ex- 
ecuted a  rather  large  picture,  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,^ 
with  a  second  picture  in  San  Romeo,^  near  the  lateral  door 
of  the  church. 

In  like  manner,  Andrea  and  his  brother  Bernardo  together 
adorned  the  exterior  fagade  of  Sant'  Apollinare  in  fresco,  a 
work  which  they  executed  with  such  extraordinary  care  that 
the  colours,  although  in  that  exposed  situation,  have  re- 
mained in  wonderful  preservation  even  to  this  day,  when 
they  are  still  fresh  and  beautiful.^  Moved  by  the  fame  of 
these  works,  which  were  highly  praised,  the  men  who  at 
that  time  governed  Pisa,  caused  Andrea  to  be  sum- 
moned for  the  service  of  their  Oampo  Santo,  where  he  was 
appointed  to  paint  a  part  of  one  of  the  walls,  as  had  been 
already  done  by  Giotto  and  Buffalmacco,^^  wherefore,  set- 
ting himself  earnestly  to  work,  Andrea  painted  a  Last 
Judgment,  with  various  fantasies  of  his  own  invention,  on 
that  side  of  the  building  nearest  to  the  duomo  and  beside 
the  Crucifixion  of  Buffalmacco.  In  the  angle  on  which  he 
commenced  his  work,  Orgagna  represented  the  temporal 
nobility  of  every  degree,  surrounded  by  all  the  pleasures  of 
this  world  ;  they  are  seated  in  the  midst  of  a  meadow,  en- 
amelled with  flowers  and  beneath  the  shade  of  orange-trees, 
forming  a  delicious  grove  ;  frolicsome  Cupids  are  sporting 

•These  works  are  lost. 

''This  picture  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London.  For  a  notice  of  it 
see  A.  H.  Macmurdo  in  Century  Guild  Hobby  Horse,  II.,  34. 

8  San  Remigio  rather.    This  picture  has  disappeared. 

9  These  works  have  perished. 

10  Though  Ghiberti  makes  no  mention  of  Andrea's  work  at  the  Campo  San- 
to, Vasari's  statement  has  been  accepted  until  very  recently.  Messrs.  Crowe 
and  Cavalcaselle  decided  in  1864  that  the  famous  Triumph  of  Death  and  the 
Last  Judgment  were  painted  by  the  Siennese  brothers,  the  Lorenzetti.  Mi- 
lanesi  is  inclined  to  credit  them  to  Nardo  (i.e.,  Bernardo)  Daddi.  See  Milan- 
esi's  Commentary  to  the  Lives  of  Stefano  Piorentino  and  Ugolino  of  Siena, 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  OKGAGNA 


133 


among  the  branches  of  these  trees,  and  hovering  about  the 
company  beneath  them,  they  joyously  fly  around  the  young 
girls  of  the  party  ;  all  these  figures  thus  seated  are  mani- 
festly portraits,  and  were  taken  from  the  noble  ladies  and 
great  personages  of  that  day,  but  from  the  length  of  time 
that  has  now  elapsed,  they  can  no  longer  be  recognized. 
The  Cupids  appear  to  be  shooting  their  arrows  at  the  young 
maidens,  near  whom  are  knights  and  nobles  occupied  in 
listening  to  music  and  songs,  or  in  watching  the  dances  of 
youths  and  maidens,  who  rejoice  in  the  gladness  of  their 
youth  and  love.  Among  these  nobles  Orgagna  has  por- 
trayed Castruccio,  lord  of  Lucca ;  he  is  represented  as  a 
handsome  youth,  wearing  a  cap  of  azure  blue,  and  holding 
a  falcon  on  his  hand,  with  other  nobles  of  the  same  period 
near  him,  but  whose  names  are  not  known.  In  short,  he 
depicted  with  all  possible  diligence,  in  this  first  part  of  his 
work,  whatever  the  world  has  to  offer  of  most  joyous  and 
-  delightful,  so  far  as  the  space  would  permit,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  art.  On  the  other  side 
of  the  same  picture  is  a  high  mountain,  on  which  Andrea 
has  represented  the  life  of  those  who,  moved  by  repentance 
of  their  sins,  and  by  desire  for  salvation,  have  retired  from 
the  world  to  that  Solitude  which  is  occupied  by  holy  her- 
mits, whose  days  are  passed  in  the  service  of  God,  and  who 
are  pursuing  various  occupations,  with  most  animated  ex- 
pression and  truth  of  effect  ;  some,  reading  or  praying, 
seem  wholly  intent  on  a  life  of  contemplation  ;  otliers,  la- 
bouring to  gain  their  bread,  are  actively  employed  in  dif- 
ferent ways  ;  one  hermit  is  seen  milking  a  goat,  nor  would 
it  be  possible  to  imagine  a  more  truthful  and  animated  fig- 
ure than  he  presents.  On  the  lower  part  of  the  hill  is  St. 
Macarius,  calling  the  attention  of  three  kings,  who  are  rid- 
ing forth  to  the  chase,  accompanied  by  their  ladies,  and 
followed  by  their  train,  to  human  misery,  as  exhibited  in 
three  monarchs  lying  dead,  but  not  wholly  decayed,  within 
a  sepulchre.  The  living  potentates,  in  varied  and  beautiful 
attitudes,  regard  this  spectacle  with  serious  attention,  and 


134 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


one  might  almost  say  that  they  are  reflecting  with  regret  on 
their  own  liability  shortly  to  become  such  as  those  they  are 
looking  upon.  In  one  of  these  sovereigns,  represented  on 
horseback,  Andrea  has  painted  the  likeness  of  Uguccione 
della  Faggiuola  of  Arezzo ;  it  is  the  figure  who  is  holding 
his  nose  with  one  hand  to  avoid  the  odour  of  the  dead  and 
putrid  bodies.  In  the  centre  of  the  picture  is  Death,  robed 
in  black,  and  flying  through  the  air ,  the  form  is  that  of  a 
woman,  and  she  clearly  intimates  that  by  her  scythe,  the 
crowds  lying  dead  on  the  earth  beneath  her  have  been  de- 
prived of  life.i^  All  states  and  conditions  are  there  :  rich 
and  poor,  young  and  old,  men  and  women ;  the  strong  and 
blooming,  together  with  the  sick  and  faded,  some  of  every 
age  in  short,  and  all  in  large  numbers.  And  as  Andrea 
knew  that  the  Pisans  were  pleased  with  the  invention  of 
Bulfalmacco,  who  caused  the  figures  of  Bruno,  in  San 
Paolo  a  Kipa  d'Arno,  to  speak,  by  making  the  words  issue 
from  their  mouths,  so  he  filled  his  whole  work  with  such 
inscriptions,  the  greater  part  of  which  have  been  destroyed 
by  time,  and  are  no  longer  intelligible  ;  among  some  still 
legible,  are  the  following,  uttered  by  old  crippled  men, 
whom  he  has  made  to  exclaim  as  below  : — 

Dacche  prosperitade  ci  ha  lasciati, 

O  morte,  medicina  d'ogni  pena, 

Deh  vieni  a  darne  ormai  Tultima  cena"  — 

"  Sig.  Igino  Benvenuto  Supino,  Arch  Stor.,  VII.,  21-40.  II  Trionfo 
della  morte  e  il  giitdizio,  in  a  long  and  elaborate  article  decides  that  the  more 
powerful  spirit  and  technique  of  the  aiitheuticated  Lorenzetti  frescoes  in 
Siena  prove  these  brothers  not  to  have  been  the  authors  of  The  Triumph 
and  of  The  Judgment ;  in  these  he  declares  the  technique  to  be  rough  and 
unskilful,  while  it  is  admirable  in  the  fresco  of  the  Anchorites. 

Sig.  Supino  judges  the  two  works  in  question  {11  Giudizio,  11  Trionfo) 
to  be  Pisan  and  the  work  of  Francesco  Traini.  See  the  article  for  many 
reproductions  and  comparisons. 

12  Since  nought  of  happiness  to  us  remains, 
Come,  then,  O  Death ! — the  cure  for  every  grief — 
Give  our  last  supper,  and  relief  from  pain. 

Mrs.  Foster's  Notes. 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  OEGAGNA 


135 


with  other  words  that  cannot  be  deciphered,  and  verses  in 
the  old  manner,  composed,  as  I  find,  by  Orgagna  himself, 
who  gave  his  attention  to  poetry  also,  and  occasionally  wrote 
a  sonnet.  Around  these  dead  bodies  devils  are  moving ; 
they  busily  tear  the  souls  of  the  departed  from  their 
mouths,  and  carry  them  off  to  certain  fiery  gulfs,  seen  at 
the  summit  of  a  very  high  mountain  :  opposite  to  these 
devils  are  angels,  who  approach  others  of  the  dead,  which 
have  manifestly  belonged  to  the  good,  and  in  like  manner, 
drawing  the  souls  from  their  mouths,  they  bear  them  flying 
to  Paradise.  On  a  scroll,  supported  by  two  angels,  tlie  fol- 
lowing verses  are  written : 

*'  Ischermo  di  savere  e  di  ricchezza 
Di  nobilitate  ancora  e  di  prodezza 
Vale  neente  ai  colpi  di  costei  " — 

with  some  other  words  which  cannot  easily  be  read.*^  Be- 
neath this,  and  in  the  ornamental  border  surrounding  the 
picture,  are  nine  angels,  wlio  bear  other  inscriptions,  on 
scrolls  prepared  for  that  purpose,  some  in  Latin,  some  in 
Italian ;  they  are  placed  thus  on  the  border,  because  they 
would  have  spoiled  the  effect  if  suffered  to  stand  in  the 
midst  of  the  picture,  but  their  not  being  admitted  to  the 
body  of  the  work  seems  to  have  displeased  the  author,  by 
whom  they  were  considered  most  beautiful,  and  so  perhaps 
they  were,  according  to  the  taste  of  tliat  age.  For  our  part, 
we  omit  the  greater  part  of  them,  that  we  may  not  fatigue 

>3  The  whole  inscription,  including  the  "  some  other  words,"  has  been  trans* 
lated  as  follows : 

Nor  wisdom's  aid,  nor  riches  may  avail, 

Nor  proud  nobility,  nor  valour's  arm, 

To  make  the  shelter  from  the  stroke  of  death  ; 

Nor  shall  thine  arguments,  O  reader  sage, 

Have  force  to  change  her  purpose  :  wherefore,  turn 

Thy  wealth  of  thought  to  its  best  use — be  thine 

The  watch  unsleeping,  ever  well  prepared. 

That  so  she  find  thee  not  in  mortal  sin. 

Mrs.  Poster's  Notes. 


136 


AKDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


our  readers  with  matter  so  far  from  amusing  and  so  little 
to  the  purpose,  and  besides,  as  the  larger  portion  of  these 
inscriptions  are  cancelled,  the  remainder  are  nothing  more 
than  fragments.  When  that  portion  of  the  work  was  com- 
pleted, Orgagna  commenced  the  Last  Judgment,  wherein  he 
represented  Jesus  Christ,  seated  on  high  amidst  the  clouds, 
and  surrounded  by  the  twelve  Apostles,  to  judge  the  quick 
and  the  dead.  The  master  has  here  displayed  the  diiferent 
emotions  proper  to  the  occasion,  with  infinite  art  and  most 
life-like  truth.  On  the  one  side  he  has  shown  the  grievous 
misery  of  the  condemned,  who  weep  bitterly  as  they  are  torn 
away  by  furious  demons,  who  lead  them  to  the  infernal 
regions  ;  and,  on  the  other,  are  seen  the  joy  and  gladness  of 
the  good,  whom  a  choir  of  angels,  guided  by  the  archangel 
Michael,  are  happily  conducting  towards  the  right  hand,  or 
the  abode  of  the  blessed.  And  now  is  it  truly  to  be  la- 
mented, that  for  want  of  writers  to  record  the  names  of  all 
that  crowd  of  persons  represented — knights,  nobles,  and 
other  men  of  distinction,  all  evidently  drawn  and  figured 
from  the  life — scarcely  any,  or  at  least  but  very  few,  are 
known,  or  can  be  identified  :  it  is  true  that  the  pope  in  this 
picture  is  said  to  be  Innocent  IV.,  the  friend  of  Manfredi,^^ 
but  of  the  other  figures  very  few  are  authenticated.  After 
completing  this  work,  and  also  certain  sculptures  in  marble, 
which  he  executed  greatly  to  his  honour  in  the  church  of 
the  Madonna,  on  the  Ponte  Vecchio,  Orgagna  returned  to 
Florence,  leaving  his  brother  Bernardo  working  alone  in  the 
Campo  Santo,  where  he  painted  an  Inferno,  as  it  is  de- 
scribed by  Dante  ;  and  this  work  of  Bernardo^s  having  suf- 
fered great  injury,  was  restored  in  the  year  1530  by  Sollaz- 
zino,  a  painter  of  our  own  day.^^  In  Florence  he  continued 
his  labours,  painting  a  very  large  fresco  on  one  of  the  walls 

1"*  The  word  amico,  friend,  is  here  undoubtedly  a  misprint  for  nemico,  enemy, 
since  Innocent  was  implacably  hostile  to  Manfred  and  all  his  house. 

1*  Giuliano  di  Giovanni  di  Castellano  da  Montelupo,  called  II  Sollazzino, 
born  about  1470,  died  1548,  restored  the  Inferno,  and  in  so  doing  varied  the 
composition  according  to  his  own  caprice.    Milanesi,  I.  GOO. 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


137 


of  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  near  the  centre  of  the  build- 
ing. The  subject  of  this  work  is  that  which  he  had  previ- 
ously treated  in  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa,  in  three  similar 
divisions,  but  the  story  of  St.  Macarius,  exhibiting  the  dead 
kings,  and  that  of  the  hermits  on  the  mountain,  is  omitted. 
Repeating  all  the  other  parts  of  the  Pisan  pictures,  he  exe- 
cuted the  Florentine  work  with  improved  design  and  greater 
care  than  he  had  bestowed  on  tliat  of  Pisa,  but  pursuing  a 
similar  plan  as  to  the  composition,  as  well  as  in  the  manner, 
inscriptions,  and  other  accessories ;  in  this  respect  the  only 
change  was  in  the  portraits  from  life,  those  of  the  Floren- 
tine picture  portraying  his  friends  on  one  side,  whom  he 
placed  in  Paradise,  and  his  enemies  on  the  other,  who  were 
stationed  in  the  Inferno.  Among  the  good  may  be  dis- 
tinguished the  profile  of  Pope  Clement  VI.,  drawn  from  the 
life,  with  the  triple-crown  on  his  head  :  this  pontiff  was 
very  favourable  to  the  Florentines,  and  possessed  many  of 
Orgagna's  paintings,  which  he  prized  greatly.  During  his 
pontificate,  the  jubilee  of  one  hundred  years  was  changed  to 
one  of  fifty.  Also  among  the  blessed  is  Messer  Dino  del 
Garbo,  an  eminent  pliysician  of  that  time,  attired  as  was 
then  customary  among  physicians,  and  wearing  a  red  cap 
lined  with  grey  miniver ;  an  angel  holds  him  by  the  hand. 
There  are,  besides,  other  portraits,  of  which  the  originals 
are  not  known.  Among  the  condemned,  Orgagna  has 
placed  Guardi,  sergeant  of  the  commune  of  Florence,  whom 
the  devil  drags  along  by  a  hook  ;  he  is  distinguished  by  the 

^'  This  fresco  is  lost. 

M.  Marcel  Reymond,  in  the  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts  for  1893,  noting  that 
Orgagna  was  for  a  time  head-master  of  the  works  of  the  cathedral  of 
Orvieto,  declares  that  the  Life  of  Christ  in  the  bas-relief  of  the  facade 
postdates  1300  and  was  executed  under  direct  influence  of  Orgagna.  A 
broken  mosaic  representing  the  Birth  of  the  Virgin,  recently  found  in 
the  Vatican,  has  the  name  of  Andrea  inscribed  upon  it,  and  it  is  probably 
his  work  executed  for  the  Duomo  of  Orvieto.  The  mosaic  at  present  in 
the  facade  seems  to  be  an  ancient  copy  from  it.  There  has  been  contro- 
versy as  to  whether  a  design  made  for  a  pulpit  in  the  Orvietan  cathedral 
and  now  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo  was  by  Andrea,  but  the  evidence  is  against 
its  authenticity. 


138 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


three  red  lilies  in  his  white  cap^,  then  the  accustomed  head- 
dress of  sergeants,  beadles,  and  others  of  that  class.  This 
Andrea  did  because  G-uardi  had  seized  his  goods  for  debt. 
The  judge  and.  notary  who  had  acted  against  him  on  the 
same  occasion  were  similarly  represented  by  the  painter 
among  the  sinners  of  the  Inferno.  Near  G-uardi  is  Cecco 
d^Ascoli,^"^  a  famous  magician  of  that  day  ;  and  a  little  above 
him,  towards  the  centre  of  the  painting,  is  a  hypocritical 
friar,  who  issues  from  a  tomb,  and  seeks  furtively  to  mingle 
with  the  good,  but  is  discovered,  by  an  angel,  who  drives 
him  into  the  midst  of  the  condemned. 

Andrea  Orgagna  had  another  brother,  besides  Bernardo, 
who  was  called  Jacopo,^^  and  who  devoted  himself  to  sculpt- 
ure, but  with  no  great  success ;  for  this  brother  Andrea 
sometimes  made  designs  in  relief,  and  while  thus  working  in 
clay,  he  conceived  an  inclination  to  do  something  in  marble, 
and  to  ascertain  if  he  yet  remembered  the  principles  of  that 
art,  to  which  he  had  given  his  attention,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
Pisa.  He  now,  therefore,  applied  himself  earnestly  to  this 
study,  and  profited  so  greatly  that  he  afterwards  availed 
himself  of  these  labours,  very  much  to  his  credit,  as  shall 
be  related  in  the  sequel.  Andrea  next  devoted  himself, 
with  the  utmost  diligence,  to  the  study  of  architecture,  be- 
lieving that  he  should  find  this  also  useful  to  him  at  some 
future  day ;  nor  was  he  deceived  in  that  expectation — the 
"  commune  of  Florence,  having  purchased  the  houses  of  sev- 
eral citizens,  in  the  year  1355,  for  the  purpose  of  extending 
their  buildings  and  enlarging  the  piazza,  caused  various 
designs  to  be  prepared,  and  Andrea  was  among  the  masters 
who  offered  their  plans  to  the  consideration  of  the  com- 
mune. The  proposed  erections  consisted  of  a  building 
wherein  the  citizens  might  assemble  during  the  winter,  or 
in  bad  weather,  for  the  arrangement  of  such  affairs  as  they 

"  Ceooo  d'Ascoli  was  a  celebrated  mathematician,  physician,  and  poet. 
He  was  burnt  for  heresy  in  Florence  in  1327.    See  Villani. 
These  pictures  are  lost. 
i»  Jacopo  was  a  painter,  not  a  sculptor,  his  brother  Matteo  was  the  sculptor. 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


139 


were  accustomed  to  transact  in  the  uncovered  arcade,  when 
the  weather  offered  no  impediment ;  and  the  commune  de- 
termined to  build  a  magnificent  Loggia,  near  the  palace, 
for  that  purpose,  together  with  an  edifice  for  the  mint. 
Among  the  plans  then  presented  by  the  best  masters  of  the 
city,  the  one  universally  approved  was  that  of  Orgagna,  and 
this  the  commune  accepted,^  as  being  more  extensive,  mag- 
nificent, and  beautiful,  than  any  other.  After  his  design, 
therefore,  according  to  the  determination  of  the  signori  and 
the  commune,  the  grand  Loggia  of  the  piazza  was  com- 
menced, on  the  foundations  laid  at  the  time  of  the  duke  of 
Athens,  the  building  being  diligently  and  carefully  con- 
structed of  hewn  stone.  And  on  this  occasion  a  method, 
new  to  those  times,  was  introduced  :  the  arches,  namely,  of 
the  vault,  instead  of  being  pointed,  as  they  had  previously 
been,  were  turned  in  half-circles,  after  a  new  and  much- 
lauded  manner.^^  The  whole  fabric  was  one  of  infinite 
grace  and  beauty  ;  and  was  completed,  under  the  direction 
of  Orgagna,  in  a  very  short  time.  And  if  the  builders  had 
had  the  forethought  to  construct  their  work  beside  San 
Romolo,  and  had  turned  its  back  to  the  north,  it  would 
have  been  as  useful  to  the  whole  city  as  it  is  beautiful. 
This  they  probably  neglected  to  do,  from  the  wish  to  have 
it  close  to  the  palace  gate  ;  but  the  consequence  is,  that 
during  the  winter  no  one  can  endure  to  remain  in  the  Log- 
gia, for  the  sharpness  of  the  wind.  Between  the  arches  of 
the  front,  and  among  other  ornaments,  by  his  own  hand, 
Orgagna  sculptured  seven  marble  figures  in  mezzo-relievo, 
representing  the  seven  theological  and  cardinal  Virtues,^ 

2"  This  grand  building  was  commenced  eight  j-ears  after  the  death  of  Or- 
gagna. Its  architects  were  Benci  di  Cione  and  Simone  di  Francesco  Talenti. 
There  is  nothing  to  disprove  that  Andrea  may  have  given  some  first  sugges- 
tions for  it,  but  neither  is  there  any  documentary  proof  that  he  did  so,  and 
Ghiberti,  when  praising  him  as  architect,  does  not  mention  the  Loggia  de' 
Lanzi.  It  is  possible  that  the  similarity  of  names  Andrea  di  Cione  and  Benci 
di  Cione  deceived  Vasari.   See  Milanesi,  I.  603. 

The  round  arch  has  existed  at  all  epochs  of  Ttaliin  history. 

22  According  to  Milanesi  the  seven  Theological  Virtues  were  designed  by 


140 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


which  are  so  admirably  done,  that,  taken  in  conjunction 
with  the  rest  of  the  work,  they  prove  this  master  to  have 
been  no  less  excellent  as  a  sculptor,  than  he  was  as  a  painter 
and  architect.  In  addition  to  his  talents,  Andrea  was,  be- 
sides, endowed  with  a  most  cheerful  disposition  and  kind 
heart ;  no  man,  of  his  condition,  was  ever  more  amiable,  or 
of  pleasanter  manners.  While  occupied  with  any  one  of  his 
three  professions,  Andrea  never  neglected  the  other  two ; 
thus,  while  the  Loggia  was  in  progress  of  construction,  he 
painted  a  picture  in  distemper,  comprising  many  large  fig- 
ures, with  smaller  ones  on  the  predella.  This  picture  was 
intended  for  that  chapel  of  the  Strozzi  wherein  he  had  exe- 
cuted certain  works  in  fresco,  with  his  brother  Bernardo ; 
and  here,  believing  that  this  painting  would  offer  more 
conclusive  testimony  to  his  skill  in  art,  than  could  be  pre- 
sented by  his  labours  in  fresco,  he  inscribed  his  name  in  the 
following  words : — 

"ANNO  DOMINI  MCCCLVII,   ANDKEAS  CI0NI3  DE  PLORENTIA  ME  PINXIT."  23 

This  work  being  completed,  Andrea  executed  other  pict- 
ures, also  on  panel,  which  were  sent  to  the  pope,  in  Avig- 
non, and  are  still  in  the  cathedral  church  of  that  city.'^^ 
Shortly  after,  the  men  of  the  brotherhood  of  Orsanmichele, 
having  collected  large  sums  of  money  by  the  ordinary  alms- 
giving, and  in  consequence  of  the  mortality  which  pre- 
vailed in  1348,  when  large  donations  of  money  and  lands 
were  offered  to  their  Madonna,  determined  to  construct  a 
chapel,  or  rather  tabernacle,  around  her,  enriched  not  only 
with  marbles,  sculptured  in  all  possible  ways,  and  adorned 
with  other  rich  stones  of  price,  but  decorated  moreover  with 

Agnolo  Gaddi,  1383-1386.  Faith  and  Hope  were  carved  by  Jacopo  di  Piero 
Tedesco,  Temperance  and  Fortitude  by  Giovanni  di  Fetto,  and  Charity  by 
Jacopo  di  Piero.  Perkins,  however,  see  Historical  Handbook  of  Italian 
Sculpture,  p.  390,  assigns  much  earlier  dates  to  some  of  these  sculptures. 
M.  Marcel  Reymond  ranks  them  among  the  best  works  in  the  range  of  Chris- 
tian art. 

23  This  important  panel  by  Orgagna  is  still  on  the  altar  of  the  Strozzi 
Chapel.  24  These  works  are  lost. 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


141 


mosaics  and  ornaments  of  bronze  ;  embellished,  in  short,  to 
the  utmost  extent  practicable  to  the  art  of  the  period.  They 
resolved  that  the  building  should  surpass  all  that  had  been 
previously  erected  of  that  size,  as  well  for  the  workmanship 
as  the  material,  and  therefore  confided  the  charge  of  the 
whole  to  Orgagna,  as  being  the  most  excellent  artist  of  that 
age  ;  and  he  prepared  so  many  designs  for  the  edifice,  that 
one  was  at  length  found  to  please  those  who  ruled  in  the 
matter,  and  they  declared  it  better  than  all  the  others. 
Thereupon,  resigning  the  undertaking  to  Orgagna's  hands, 
they  referred  the  whole  to  his  judgment  and  opinion  ;  where- 
fore, employing  various  masters  in  sculpture,  selected  from 
different  countries,  to  execute  all  other  parts  of  the  work, 
he  devoted  his  own  attention,  with  that  of  his  brother  Ber- 
nardo, to  the  figures ;  and  having  finished  them  all,  he  caused 
the  several  parts  to  be  most  ingeniously  and  carefully  put 
together,  without  cement,  but  with  fastenings  of  lead  and 
copper,  to  the  end  that  no  spot  or  blemish  should  lessen  the 
beauty  of  the  polished  and  shining  marbles.  In  all  this  he 
proceeded  with  the  most  perfect  success,  completing  the 
whole,  to  his  own  great  honour,  as  well  as  to  the  benefit  of 
the  artists  who  succeeded  him  ;  for  this  work,  which,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  mode  of  junction  discovered  by  Orgagna, 
makes  the  spectator  believe  the  entire  chapel  to  be  formed 
of  one  block  of  marble,  must  have  served  many  succeeding 
artists  as  a  useful  model. ^  And  although  this  chapel  is  in 
the  Teutonic  manner,  it  has  nevertheless  so  much  grace, 
and  is  so  beautifully  proportioned,  according  to  that  style, 
as  to  hold  the  first  place  among  the  works  of  the  period.  The 
composition  consists  principally  of  large  and  small  figures, 
in  mezzo-rilievo,  representing  angels  and  prophets  surround- 

2^  Signer  Franceschini,  in  Fj  Oratorio  di  San  Afichele  in  Orto  (1892),  says 
Francesco  Talenti  was  probably  the  architect  of  Or  San  Michele.  Orgagna 
was  not  summoned  until  1349,  and  then  not  as  Cajio-maestro  of  the  building, 
but  of  the  tabernacle.  Sig.  Franceschini  thinks  that  Orgagna  himself  painted 
the  altar-piece  of  the  tabernacle,  but  Herr  von  P'abriczy,  reviewing  Fran- 
ceschini, Arch.  Star.,  VII.  223-225,  believes  that  Milanesi  is  right  in  attribut- 
ing the  painting  to  Bernardo  Daddi. 


142 


ANDREA  DT  CIONE  OKGAGNA 


ing  the  Madonna,  and  all  most  beautifully  executed.  Won- 
derful, also,  is  the  casting  of  the  bronze  girders  and  supports, 
which  are  all  carefully  polished :  the  whole  building  is 
clasped  around,  and  upheld,  in  such  sort  by  these  bronze 
fastenings,  that  the  strength  of  the  work  is  no  less  remark- 
able than  its  beauty,  which  last  is  admirable  in  all  parts  of 
the  chapel.  But  how  earnestly  Andrea  laboured  to  display 
the  mastery  of  his  genius  before  the  eyes  of  that  rude  age, 
is  made  more  than  ever  manifest  in  the  large  historical 
piece  executed  in  mezzo-rilievo,  on  the  back  part  of  this 
tabernacle,  where  he  has  placed  the  twelve  apostles — figures 
which  are  each  a  braccia  and  a  half  high ;  they  look  up 
towards  the  Madonna,  who  is  ascending  to  heaven  in  an 
oviform  Gloria,^^  surrounded  by  angels.  In  one  of  these 
apostles,  Orgagna  has  left  us  his  own  portrait,  taken  as  an 
old  man,  which  he  then  was  ;  the  beard  is  shaven,  the  large 
capote  wound  about  the  head,  the  face  is  round  and  flat,  as 
seen  in  the  likeness  above,  which  was  taken  from  the  re- 
lief in  question.  In  addition  to  this,  the  following  words 
are  inscribed  in  the  marble  beneath  : — 

*•  ANDREAS  CIONIS  PICTOR  PLORENTINUS  ORATORII  ARCHIMAGISTER  EXTITIT  HUJUS 

MCCCLIX." 

It  appears  that  the  building  of  the  above-mentioned 
Loggia,  and  of  the  tabernacle  just  described,  with  all  its 
workmanship,  cost  96,000  florins  of  gold,^'  which  were  ex- 
tremely well  spent ;  for  whether,  as  regards  the  architect- 
ure, sculpture,  or  other  ornaments,  it  is  certainly  not  sur- 
passed in  beauty  by  any  work  of  that  period  ;  but  is  such, 
that  for  the  part  he  has  taken  in  it,  the  name  of  Andrea 
Orgagna  has  been,  and  ever  will  be,  great  and  enduring.  It 
was  the  custom  of  this  master  to  sign  himself  Andrea  di 

28  There  are  really  two  subjects :  one  is  the  death  of  the  Virgin,  who  is  sur- 
rounded by  Apostles,  the  other  is  the  Virgin  borne  up  to  heaven  by  angels. 
M.  Marcel  Reymond,  Arch.  Stor.^  VIT.  484-488,  decides  that  the  ''''  Angelo  che 
Suona  "  in  the  Bargello  is  not  by  Orgagna,  as  attributed  by  him  in  the  Gazette 
des  Beaux  Arts  for  1893,  but  that  it  is  rather  the  work  of  a  Pisan  sculptor. 

27  Probably  86,000,  the  amount  stated  in  the  first  edition. 


ANDREA  DI  CIONE  ORGAGNA 


143 


done,  sculptor,  on  his  paintings ;  and  Andrea  di  Cione,^ 
painter,  on  his  sculptures,  desiring  that  men  should  be 
aware  of  his  claims  as  a  sculptor  while  they  were  admiring 
his  paintings,  and  of  his  talents  as  a  painter  while  they  ex- 
amined his  sculptures.  There  are  numerous  pictures  in 
Florence  by  this  artist,  some  of  which  are  known  by  the 
name,  as  in  the  painting  in  San  Komeo,  before  alluded  to ; 
others  are  recognized  by  the  manner,  as,  for  example,  a 
work  in  the  chapter-house  of  the  monastery  degli  Angioli.^ 
Some  pictures,  which  Andrea  left  unfinished,  were  com- 
pleted by  his  brother  Bernardo,  who  survived  him,  but  not 
many  years.  Andrea  amused  himself,  as  we  have  before 
said,  in  making  verses  ;  and  when  he  was  very  old,  he  wrote 
certain  sonnets,  addressed  to  Burchiello,  who  was  then  a 
youth. ^  Finally,  having  attained  the  age  of  sixty  years,  he 
finished  the  course  of  his  life,  in  the  year  1389  and  from 
his  house,  which  was  in  the  Via  Vecchia  de'  Corazzai,  he 
was  honourably  borne  to  the  tomb.^ 

»8  This  statement  of  Vasari's  is  not  corroborated  by  tho  only  signed  picture 
of  Orgagna.  This  form  of  signature  was  also  used  by  Prancia,  who  placed 
aurifex  on  his  pictures  and pictor  on  his  goldsmith's  work. 

"  This  work  is  lost. 
Burchiello  also  wrote  sonnets  to  Orgagna,  or  rather  may  have  dedicated 
them  to  Orgagna's  memory,  since  the  latter  lived  long  before  Burchiello.  See 
note  2. 

^'  Milanesi  gives  as  the  probable  dates  of  Andrea's  birth  and  death  1308-1368, 
I.  p.  608,  note  1. 

32  Andrea  Orgagna  is  the  greatest  Tuscan  painter  between  Giotto  and 
Masaccio.  As  a  sculptor  his  comprehension  of  objects  in  the  round  helped 
him  to  an  understanding  of  light  and  shade  which  gave  to  his  painted  figures 
a  solidity  unknown  to  Giotto.  Again  he  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Pi.sano,  whose 
,  sense  of  correct  and  admirable  proportion  in  his  figures  is  seen  in  the  person- 
ages of  Orgagna,  who  are  no  longer  the  thickset  people  of  Giotto,  but  tall, 
graceful,  well-proportioned  men  and  women  (See  the  Christ  and  Mary  in 
the  Paradise  of  the  Strozzi  chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Novella. When  Orgagna 
began  to  paint,  the  followers  of  Giotto  had  become  hardly  more  than  imita- 
tors, and  Andrea  seems  to  have  turned  to  the  school  of  Siena  and  found  there 
his  faces,  which  have  more  delicacy,  charm,  and  beauty  than  have  those  of 
Giotto.  Although  the  famous  Loggia  has  been  taken  from  him  by  Benci  and 
Talenti,  the  tabernacle  of  Or  San  Michele  and  the  Paradise  of  the  Strozzi 
chapel  suffice  to  his  fame.  The  latter,  indeed,  is  so  charming  that  even  in 
presence  of  the  splendid  series  of  frescoes  with  which  Ghirlandajo  has  replaced 


144 


ANDEEA  DI  CIONE  OKGAGNA 


The  drawings  of  Andrea  Orgagna  were  executed  with  in- 
finite care,  as  may  be  seen  in  our  book.^ 

the  works  of  the  elder  painter  in  the  choir  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  one  regrets 
that  the  church  had  not  found  place  for  the  later  glories  and  yet  kept  the 
frescoes  of  the  great  Trecentisto. 

33  Among  the  pupils  of  Orgagna  were  Francesco  Traini  and  Nello  di  Gio- 
vanni Folconi. 

In  this  selection  from  the  Lives  of  Vasari,  Andrea  Orgagna  practically 
ends  the  list  of  fourteenth  century  artists,  for  although  Duccio  follows  him 
in  the  pages  of  the  book  he  really  belongs  to  a  far  earlier  epoch.  No  one 
can  close  this  great  century  more  worthily  than  Andrea,  for  as  sculptor,  paint- 
er, and  architect  his  name  has  been  connected,  rightly  or  wrongly,  with  many 
of  the  principal  works  of  his  time.  The  fourteenth  century  was  an  epoch  of 
cathedral  building  in  Florence,  of  cathedral  decoration  in  Pisa,  Siena,  Orvi  - 
eto ;  whole  armies  of  statues  marched  from  the  hotteghe  of  the  sculptors  to 
their  places  in  niches  or  upon  pinnacles,  while  vast  panoramas  of  scripture 
story  were  developed  in  bas-relief  upon  the  front  of  the  church  of  Orvieto 
and  painted  cycles  of  biblical  history  covered  the  walls  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  of  Santa  Croce  in  Florence,  of  an  hundred  town  halls  from  Perugia  to 
Padua,  and  of  that  vastest  of  all  picture  galleries,  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa. 
This  was  the  heroic  epoch  of  Italian  art,  and  to  estimate  it  rightly  we  must 
consider  it  in  whole  cycles  of  pictures  and  reliefs,  and  look  at  its  results  not 
in  detail  but  in  a  series  of  ensembles.  What  we  have  to  realize  is  decoration 
applied  to  whole  buildings,  worked  out  in  a  carefully  planned  intellectual 
scheme,  where  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor  join  hands  and  are  absolutely 
interdependent. 

If  we  study  it  in  this  wise  we  shall  find  that  for  the  practice  and  exposition 
of  the  laws  of  simplicity  and  harmony  in  decoration,  of  the  true  value  of 
color  as  applied  to  the  interior  of  buildings,  and  of  color  in  its  relation  to 
various  degrees  of  lighting  of  those  same  buildings,  the  fourteenth  century  is 
equalled  only  by  the  greatest  decorative  epochs  and  is  unsurpassed  in  the 
whole  history  of  art. 


DUCOIO/  SIENESE  PAINTER 


[The  first  mention  of  Duccio  occurs  in  1283  ;  the  last  in  1339.] 

B1BLIOGRA.PHY. — G.  Milanesi,  Scrilli  varj  :  Delia  vera  eta  di  Guido  pittore 
Senese  e  delta  celebre  sua  tavola  in  San  Domenico  di  Siena.  Siena,  1873. 
fj  Art^  III.  151.  E.  Dobbert,  JahrbncJi  dcr  KoiiiglicJien  Preussischen  Samm- 
liingen  (Vol.  VI.  p.  152),  Buccio's  Bild  Die  geburt  ChrisW  in  der  Eonig- 
lichen  Gemdlde-gallerien  zu  Berlin. 


HE  men  who  first  originate  remarkable  invention  have 


at  all  times  received  considerable  attention  from  those 


who  write  history,  and  this  arises  from  the  fact  that 
the  first  discovery  of  a  thing  is  more  prized — because  of  the 
charm  attached  to  novelty — than  all  the  improvements  that 
are  afterwards  made,  although  by  these  last  it  may  be  that 
the  matter  is  brought  to  its  ultimate  perfection.  Nor  is 
this  without  reason,  seeing  that  if  none  made  a  beginning, 
there  would  be  no  place  for  the  gradual  amelioration  which 
brings  us  to  the  middle  point,  and  none  for  those  last  im- 
provements by  which  the  thing  invented  attains  to  the 
perfection  of  its  beauty.  Duccio  of  Siena,^  therefore,  a 
painter  much  esteemed,  deservedly  appropriated  a  large 
amount  of  the  fame  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  those  who  suc- 
ceeded him  3  for  many  years  after,  he  being  tlie  first  to 

*  Duccio  di  Buoninsegna.  The  name  Duccio  is  probably  contracted  either 
from  Orlanduccio  or  Guiduccio,  diminutives  of  Orlando  and  Guido. 

9  The  most  ancient  record  of  Duccio  is  of  1282  ;  he  was  son  of  Buoninsegna 
(in  the  record  Duceiun  quondam  Boniusegnfr).  A  small  panel  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Nancy  is  signed  Buccio  mcfacieb.  anno.  S.  MCCLXXVIII.,  but  this 
inscription  appears  to  be  false.  Maestro  Segna  di  Buonaventura,  called  by 
Tizio  the  master  of  Duccio,  seems  to  have  been  his  scholar. 

3  According  to  Milanesi  it  is  now  proved  that  Guido  da  Siena  painted 
his  famous  picture,  not  in  1221,  but  in  1281,  and  that  with  him  commenced  the 
real  Sienese  school.  See  the  article  Bella  vera  ctd  di  Quido  pittore  Senese 
e  delta  celebre  sua  tavola  in  San  Botncnico  di  Siena,  from  Scritti  varj.  of  G. 


10 


146 


DUCCIO 


commence  the  decoration  of  tlie  pavement^  of  the  Sienese 
cathedral  with  those  figures  in  "  chiaro-scuro/^  wherein 
the  artists  of  later  times  have  performed  the  marvellous 
works  that  we  now  see.  Duccio  devoted  himself  to  the 
imitation  of  the  ancient  manner,  but  very  judiciously  gave 
his  figures  a  certain  grace  of  outline,  whicii  he  succeeded  in 
securing  notwithstanding  the  great  difficulties  presented 
by  the  branch  of  art  now  in  question.  Imitating  paintings 
in  chiaro-scuro/'  Duccio  designed  and  arranged  the  first 
commencements  of  the  above-named  pavement  with  his  own 
hand  ;  he  also  executed  a  picture  in  the  cathedral,  which 
was  the  first  on  the  high  altar,  but  was  afterwards  removed 
to  make  way  for  the  tabernacle  of  the  Sacrament  ^  which 
we  now  see  there.  This  picture,  according  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  Lorenzo  di  Bartolo  Ghiberti,  represented  a  corona- 
tion of  the  Virgin,  partly  in  the  Byzantine  manner,  but 
partly  also  in  the  manner  of  the  moderns.   And  as  the  high 

Milanesi,  Siena,  1873.  On  the  other  hand  Herr  Franz  Wickhoff  Ueher  die  Zeit 
des  Guido  von  Siena  (Mittheilwigen  des  Instituts  fiir  Oesterreichische  Ge- 
schichtsforschungoi,  Bd.  X.  S.  244-286,  combats  Milanesi's  assertion  regard- 
ing this  date. 

*  This  is  not  probable,  as  there  is  no  record  of  the  existence  of  a  cathedral 
pavement  before  1359.  The  mosaic  mentioned  in  1310  was  that  of  the  facade. 
Black,  white,  and  red  mosaic  in  the  nature  of  that  used  for  the  cathedral  pave- 
ment does,  however,  antedate  Duccio.  Some  of  it  still  existing  in  the  atri- 
um of  the  Duomo  of  Lucca  is  recorded  (in  an  inscription  near  the  great  door) 
having  been  executed  in  1233.  The  pavement  of  the  Siena  Duomo  is  protected 
by  boards,  which  are  occasionally  removed  for  certain  church  festivals. 
These  elaborate  mosaic  pictures,  set  as  the  pavement  of  a  cathedral,  are 
theoretically  all  wrong,  but  are  actually  very  rich  and  fascinating  in  their  ef- 
fect, while  many  of  them  are  beautiful,  decorative  compositions,  intrinsically 
admirable,  though  out  of  place.  The  most  critical  visitor  cannot,  however, 
find  much  fault  with  their  position,  and  is  glad  that  so  interesting  an  ex- 
periment was  tried  at  least  once.  (For  a  study  of  the  general  scheme  of  the 
pavement  see  the  ensemble  photographed  by  Lombardi  of  Siena,  from  a  draw- 
ing.) 

6  Lorenzo  di  Pietro,  called  il  Vecchietta^  made  the  bronze  tabernacle  in  1472 
for  the  Hospital  Church.  In  1506  it  was  brought  to  the  Duomo  and  placed 
on  the  high  altar. 

Francesco  di  Giorgio  in  1497  cast  two  of  the  bronze  angels  for  the  said 
altar,  and  Giovanni  di  Stcfano  executed  the  two  others  ;  the  marbles  are  by 
various  artists  after  the  designs  of  Baldasarre  Peruzzi.    See  Milanesi,  I.  656. 


DUCCIO 


147 


altar  of  this  church  was  entirely  isolated,  the  picture  was 
painted  on  both  sides,  the  artist  having  represented  all  the 
principal  events  related  in  the  New  Testament  on  the  back 
part,  a  work  which  he  executed  with  infinite  care  in  small 
figures,  which  are  very  beautiful.  I  have  endeavoured  to 
ascertain  where  this  picture  now  is,  but  with  all  the  efforts 
I  have  made,  I  have  never  been  able  to  discover  it.^  Nor 
can  I  find  any  one  who  knows  what  Francesco  di  Giorgio, 
the  sculptor,  did  with  it  when  he  restored  the  tabernacle 
in  bronze,  together  with  the  marble  ornaments  by  which 
it  is  decorated."^ 

Duccio  painted  many  pictures  on  gold  grounds  for  the 
city  of  Siena,  and  one  for  the  church  of  Santa  Trinita  in 
Florence  ;  this  last  is  an  Annunciation.^    He  also  executed 

•This  picture,  ordered  of  Duccio,  October  9,  1308,  was  finished  in  1311.  On 
June  9  of  that  year  it  was  brought  with  great  ceremony  from  the  painter's 
house  in  the  Via  del  Laterino  to  the  Duomo  by  a  long  procession  of  clergy 
headed  by  the  archbishop,  and  of  burgesses  led  by  the  "  Nine,"  the  principal 
magistrates.  Bells  rang  and  trumpets  sounded  as  the  procession  made  the  cir- 
cuit of  the  Campo  and  marched  to  the  Duomo,  where  the  picture  was  placed 
on  the  high  altar.  When  this  high  altar,  then  under  the  great  cupola,  was 
changed  to  its  present  place  the  picture  was  removed  to  the  canonicate.  Later 
it  was  sawn  in  two,  the  back  and  front  being  separated ;  tlie  pinnacles  and 
ornaments  were  placed  in  the  sacristy  ;  the  front  of  the  picture  which  bears 
the  Madonna  surrounded  by  saints  and  angels  (and  not  a  coronation  as  stated 
by  Vasari)  was  hung  at  the  side  of  the  altar  of  Sant'  Ansano.  The  back  with 
its  twenty-seven  stories  from  the  life  of  Christ  was  set  beside  the  altar  of 
the  Sacrament.  At  present  all  of  the  different  portions  have  been  placed 
in  the  Opera  del  Duomo.  Underneath  the  front  of  his  altar  piece  Duccio 
wrote  this  prayer:  MATER.  SANCTA.  DEL  — SIS.  CAUSA.  SENIS. 
REQUIEI.—SIS.  DUCIO.  VITA.  —  TE.  QUIA.  DEPINXIT.  IT  A. 
r  ^  This  altar-piece  was  removed  in  1473  to  make  room  for  the  bronze  taber- 
nacle of  Vecchietta ;  it  was  packed  away  in  a  closet  on  the  third  floor  of  the 
Opera  del  Duomo  for  many  years  ;  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  Vasari 
failed  to  find  it.  See  E.  Dobbert,  Jahrbuch  der  K.  P.  S.,  VI.  153,  for  a  long 
article  with  reproduction  of  a  panel  of  the  Nativity  in  the  Berlin  Museum 
which  is  claimed  as  a  part  of  the  Predella  of  Duccio's  great  altar-piece. 

^  This  work  is  lost. 

There  are  also  a  Virgin  and  child  with  angels  between  St.  Dominick  and 
a  female  saint,  and  two  panels  from  an  altar-piece  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo, 
Florence  ;  a  small  signed  altar-piece  in  the  Academy  of  Florence :  a  small 
triptych,  an  Annunciation  and  a  Christ  Healing  the  Blind  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London ;  and  a  Crucifixion  with  other  subjects  from  the  collection 


148 


DUCCIO 


various  works  for  different  churches  in  Pisa,  Lucca,  and 
Pistoja,^  which  were  all  highly  praised,  and  which  gained 
him  great  renown  as  well  as  large  profits.  When  Duccio 
ultimately  died,  what  relations,  disciples,  or  property  he 
left,  are  circumstances  alike  unknown,  but  the  fact  that  he 
bequeathed  the  invention  of  chiaro-scuro  pictures  in 
marble,  as  a  legacy  to  the  art  of  painting,  would  of  itself  be 
sufficient  to  secure  him  infinite  praise  and  glory,  he  must , 
assuredly  be  numbered  among  those  benefactors  who  have 
adorned  our  art  and  promoted  its  progress  ;  since  he  who 
first  overcomes  the  difficulties  of  an  extraordinary  invention, 
not  only  claims  our  gratitude  for  his  general  deserts,  but 
merits,  in  addition,  a  more  special  remembrance  for  the 
particular  benefit  thus  conferred. 

It  is  affirmed  in  Siena  that,  in  the  year  1348,^^  Duccio 
gave  the  design  for  the  chapel  built  on  the  piazza  in  front 
of  the  palace  of  the  Signory  ;  and  we  find  it  recorded,  that 
the  sculptor  and  architect  Moccio,  an  artist  of  very  respect- 
able talent,  was  the  fellow-countryman  as  well  as  contem- 
porary of  Duccio.   But  returning  to  Duccio, we  close  our 

of  the  late  Prince  Consort.  Among  the  above  pictures  Milanesi  chronicles 
as  authentic  the  triptych  in  the  National  Gallery.  Half-length  figures  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul  in  the  Museum  of  Cologne  are  attributed  to  Duccio  by 
Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  but  Herr  H.  Thode  does  not  accept  this  at- 
tribution. 

8  Nothing  is  known  of  his  works  in  Pisa,  Lucca  and  Pistoja.  Those  in  the 
Ceppo  of  Pistoja  attributed  to  Duccio  by  Tolomei  ( Ouida  di  Pistoja)  are  not 
even  of  the  Sienese  school. 

"  The  chapel  of  the  Piazza,  ordered  in  1348  as  an  ex  voto  for  the  Plague,  was 
begun  in  1352  and  as  it  failed  to  satisfy  the  Sienese  was  demolished  four 
times  and  finally  completed  in  1376.  Milanesi  believes  that  this  chapel, 
raised  at  the  expense  of  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  was  designed  rather  by  the 
head-master  of  the  Duomo  than  by  Duccio. 

"  The  first  records  of  Duccio  are  of  1285.  Milanesi  in  his  Boc.  deW  Arte 
San.  I.  168,  says  that  nothing  is  known  of  him  after  1320,  but  in  his  later 
work,  Notes  on  Vasari,  I.  657,  he  says  that  all  notice  of  Duccio  fails  after 
1339.  Whence  he  infers  that  the  artist  was  born  about  1260  and  died  shortly 
after  1339.  Segna,  Martini,  the  two  Lorenzetti,  and  Ugolino  were  probably 
his  pupils. 

12  Duccio's  altar-piece  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  First  Renaissance ; 
Ghiberti's  description,  cited  by  Vasari,  "  partly  in  the  Byzantine  manner 


DUCCIO 


149 


account  of  his  life  with  the  observation,  that  the  works  of 
this  painter  were  executed  about  the  year  of  our  salvation 
1350. 

but  partly  also  in  the  manner  of  the  modems,"  exactly  characterizes  the 
picture. 

In  some  respects  Duccio  surpasses  Giotto,  notably  in  subtlety  of  feeling  for 
beauty  in  his  types  and  in  a  certain  delicacy  of  drawing.  The  two  masters 
are  absolutely  different  in  character.  Duccio  derives  directly  from  the  By- 
zantines— one  would  hardly  be  surprised  to  find  his  figures  in  a  manuscript 
of  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus  by  some  illuminator  who,  though  not  as 
skilful  as  those  iconographic  sculptors  who  filled  out  the  series  of  impeiial 
busts,  was  nevertheless  full  of  feeling  for  subtle  beauty  and  graceful  move- 
ment. Imagine  a  Ravennese  mosaic  freed  from  its  rigidity  and  made  supple, 
the  color  somewhat  blackened,  the  faces  human  and  pleasing,  and  you  have 
Duccio's  work.  Duccio's  is  still  the  feeling  of  the  catacombs,  (liotto's  is  the 
modem,  robust  feeling  of  the  busy,  battle-filled  fourteenth  century.  Giotto  is 
the  peasant  with  all  the  peasant's  vigor  and  capacity  for  continued  effort. 
Duccio  is  the  descendant  of  the  gentleman  of  the  old  Empire,  with  his  refine- 
ment and  his  limitations.  Duccio  is  the  final  eflBorescence  of  the  old,  Giotto  is 
the  beginning  of  the  new,  and  Duccio,  like  Giotto  and  Masaccio,  is  a  phenomenal 
artist,  intrinsically  powerful,  perceptive,  and  gifted  far  beyond  his  fellows. 


JACOPO  BELLA  QUERCIA,  SIENESE  SCULPTORS 


[Born  1371  ? ;  died  1438.] 

Bibliography. — Sculture  delle  Porte  di  San  Petronio  in  Bologna  pubhli- 
cate  da  Oiuseppe  Ouezzardi,  con  iUustraziofie  del  marchese  Virgilio  Daria, 
Bologna,  1834,  may  be  consulted,  as  also,  Angelo  Gatti,  La  Fahbrica  di  San 
Petronio^  Indagini  Storiche,  Bologna,  R.  Tipografia,  1889.  Professor  Sidney 
Colvin,  Jacopo  della  Quercia  in  the  Portfolio  for  February,  1883. 

THE  sculptor  Jacopo,  son  of  Maestro  Piero  di  Filippo  of 
Qnercia,  a  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Siena,  was 
the  first — after  Andrea  Pisano,  Orgagna,  and  the  other 
masters  above  named — who,  devoting  himself  to  sculpture 
with  a  more  earnest  study,  began  to  show  that  a  near  ap- 
proach might  be  made  to  Nature  herself  ;  and  it  was  from 
him  that  other  artists  first  took  courage  to  hope  that  it  was 
possible,  in  a  certain  measure,  to  equal  her  works.  The  first 
labours  of  this  master  which  require  to  be  mentioned, 
were  executed  in  Siena,  when  he  was  but  nineteen  years  old, 
and  the  occasion  was  as  follows  : — The  Sienese  army,  then 
in  action  against  the  Florentines,  was  commanded  by  Gian 
Tedesco,  nephew  of  Saccone  da  Pietramala,  and  by  Giovanni 
d^Azzo  Ubaldini,  when  the  latter  general  fell  sick  in  the 
camp  ;  he  was  consequently  brought  to  Siena,  where  he 
died.  The  Sienese  deeply  lamented  the  loss  of  their  cap- 
tain, whom  they  honoured  with  a  most  superb  and  solemn 
funeral ;  they  caused  an  edifice  of  wood- work  to  be  con- 
structed, in  form  of  a  pyramid,  on  the  summit  of  which 

'  Jacopo  di  Pietro  d' Angelo  (not  Filippo)  Guarnieri  of  La  Quercia 
Grossa,  a  castello  once  situated  near  Siena  and  since  destroyed,  is  variously 
stated  to  have  been  a  scholar  of  Jlfaestro  Goro  and  of  Luca  di  Giovanni. 
Milanesi  believes  that  these  claims  are  groundless  and  that  Jacopo  was 
probably  a  pupil  of  his  own  father,  who  was  a  goldsmith. 


JACOPO  DELLA  QUERCIA 


151 


was  placed  a  statue  of  Giovanni  ^  on  horseback,  larger  than 
life,  which  was  executed  by  Jacopo.  This  work  displayed 
considerable  judgment,  as  well  as  fertility  of  invention  ; 
Jacopo  having  discovered  a  method  of  proceeding  which 
had  not  before  been  in  use  :  he  formed  the  skeleton  and 
body  of  a  horse,  namely,  from  pieces  of  wood  and  small 
planks,  which  were  afterwards  swathed  and  wrapped  with 
liay,  tow,  and  hemp,  being  well  bound  and  secured  with 
ropes,  when  all  was  covered  with  clay  mixed  with  a  cement 
formed  of  paste,  glue,  and  the  shearings  of  woollen  cloth. 
This  mode  of  treatment  certainly  was,  and  is,  the  best  for 
such  things,  seeing  that  they  are  required  to  have  an  ap- 
pearance of  massiveness  and  solidity,  yet  when  completed 
and  dried,  are  in  fact  very  light,  and  being  whitened  over, 
they  have  a  sufficient  resemblance  to  marble  to  render  them 
very  pleasing  to  the  eye,  as  was  the  case  with  this  horse  of 
Jacopo's ;  to  which  may  be  added,  that  figures  thus  made, 
and  with  this  cement,  are  not  liable  to  crack,  as  they  would 
do  if  formed  from  the  clay  merely.  The  models  used  by 
sculptors,  in  our  own  day,  are  prepared  in  this  manner,  to 
the  great  convenience  of  the  artists,  who  have  the  exact 
form  and  the  just  measurements  of  the  sculptures  they  are 
executing  constantly  before  their  eyes,  an  advantage  for 
which  they  owe  much  gratitude  to  Jacopo,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  the  inventor  of  this  method. 

Having  completed  the  statue  here  described,  Jacopo,  still 
working  in  Siena,  prepared  two  tables,  in  the  wood  of  the 
lime-tree  ;  and  in  this  work  he  carved  the  figures,  their 
^  hair,  beard,  &c.,  with  such  extraordinary  patience,  that  it 
was  a  marvel.  These  tables  were  placed  in  the  cathedral, 
and  when  they  were  finished,  the  artist  executed  the  figures 
of  some  of  the  prophets,  not  of  large  size,  which  are  now  to 

2  Vasari  errs  ;  Giovanni  d'Azzo  Ubaldini,  who  died  in  Siena  in  IDOO,  was 
honored  by  a  picture  which  has  disappeared.  The  equestrian  Ktatno  by 
Jacopo,  (1391)  was  of  Giantedesco,  who  died  in  Orvieto  in  1305.  J3oth  statue 
and  picture  were  destroyed  by  Pandolfo  Petrucci,  1509.  See  Milanesi,  IL 
110,  note  2. 


152 


JACOPO  BELLA  QUERCIA 


be  seen  in  the  fa9a(ie  of  that  church.^  In  the  works  of  this 
building  he  would,  doubtless,  have  continued  to  labour,  had 
not  pestilence,  famine,  and  the  discords  of  the  Sienese  cit- 
izens, brought  the  city  to  a  very  unhappy  condition  :  they 
had  more  than  once  risen  tumultuously,  and  at  length  they 
expelled  Orlando  Male  vol  ti,^  by  whose  favour  Jacopo  had 
been  honourably  employed  in  his  native  city.  The  master 
departed  from  Siena,  therefore,  being  invited,  by  means  of 
certain  friends,  to  Lucca,  where  he  constructed  ^  a  mauso- 
leum for  the  wife  of  Paolo  Guinigi,^  who  was  then  lord  of  that 
city,  and  who  had  died  some  short  time  previously.  This 
tomb  is  in  the  church  of  San  Martino,  and  on  the  basement 
are  figures  of  boys  in  marble,  supporting  a  garland  ;  these 
are  so  finely  executed,  that  they  seem  rather  to  be  of  flesh 
than  stone.  On  the  sarcophagus  is  the  figure  of  the  lady 
buried  within,  also  finished  with  infinite  care,  and  at  her 
feet,  in  the  same  stone,  is  a  dog  in  full-relief,  as  an  emblem 
of  her  fidelity  to  her  husband. 

AVhen  Paolo  Guinigi  left,  or  rather  was  driven  out  of, 
Lucca,  in  the  year  1429,  and  the  city  remained  free,  this 
sepulchre  was  removed  from  its  place  ;  and  such  was  the 
hatred  borne  to  the  name  of  Guinigi  by  the  Lucchese,  that 
it  was  almost  totally  destroyed  ;  but  their  admiration  of  the 
beautiful  figure  and  rich  ornaments  restraining  them  to  a 
certain  extent,  they  some  time  afterwards  caused  the  sar- 
cophagus, with  the  statue,  to  be  carefully  placed  near  the 
door  leading  into  the  sacristy,  where  they  now  are,"^  but  the 

3  There  are  certain  statues  from  the  facade  of  the  cathedral,  now  in  the 
Opera  del  Duomo.  If  any  of  these  are  by  Jacopo  (and  there  is  no  document- 
ary evidence  to  that  effect)  they  are  of  a  later  epoch  than  that  mentioned  by 
Vasari. 

<  Malevolti  was  expelled  in  1390.    Jacopo  probably  could  not  at  so  early  a 
date  have  worked  on  the  facade  of  the  Duomo. 
5  In  1413. 

« Ilaria,  daughter  of  Carlo  Marchese  del  Carretto. 
A  portion  of  the  base  of  the  tomb,  purchased  in  1829  by  the  Uffizi,  was 
recently  in  the  Museo  Nazionale,  or  Bargello  of  Florence,  where  a  cast  of  tlie 
complete  monument  exists. 

There  are  several  works  by  Delia  Querela  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum 


JACOPO  DELLA  QUERCIA 


153 


chapel  of  the  Guinigi  was  taken  into  the  possession  of  the 
commune. 

Jacopo  had,  meanwhile,  heard  the  rumour  of  what  was 
intended  by  the  guild  of  the  cloth-workers  in  Florence, 
who  were  proposing  to  have  a  second  door  of  bronze  con- 
structed for  the  Baptistery  of  San  Giovanni,  the  first  hav- 
ing been  executed,  as  we  have  said,  by  Andrea  Pisano.  He 
had,  consequently,  repaired  to  Florence  to  make  himself 
known,  since  this  work  was  to  be  confided  to  the  artist  who, 
in  preparing  the  required  specimen  of  bronze,  should  give 
the  most  satisfactory  evidence  of  his  talents  and  capabilities. 
Arrived  in  Florence,  therefore,  Jacopo  not  only  prepared 
the  model, ^  but  presented  one  admirably  executed  story, 
entirely  completed  and  polished.  This  work  gave  so  much 
satisfaction,  that,  if  he  had  not  had  those  most  excellent  ar- 
tists Donatello  and  Filippo  Brunelleschi  for  competitors,  and 
who  did,  without  doubt,  surpass  him  in  the  specimens  they 
presented,  that  great  work  would  have  been  entrusted  to 
him.  But  as  the  affair  concluded  differently,  our  artist  left 
Florence  and  proceeded  to  Bologna,  where,  by  the  favour  of 
Giovanni  Bentivoglio,^  he  received  a  commission  from  the 
wardens  of  that  building  to  execute  the  principal  door  of 
the  church  of  San  Petronio.  This  door  is  in  marble,  and 
as  Jacopo  did  not  wish  to  alter  tlie  manner  in  whicli  the 
work  had  been  commenced,  he  continued  it  in  the  Gothic 
style,  adding  the  stories  in  relief  which  adorn  the  space 
above  the  range  of  columns  supporting  the  cornice  and  arch. 
Every  part  was  conducted,  with  infinite  care  and  diligence, 
^  by  the  master,  who  devoted  twelve  years  to  the  work,  exe- 
cuting the  whole  of  the  foliage,  and  other  ornaments,  with 

(see  J.  C.  Robinson's  Descriptive  Catalogue,  p.  7),  and  the  late  G.  Morelli  left 
to  the  Galleria  Carrara  at  Bergamo  a  relief  by  Querela  (Madonna  and  Child) 
and  also  an  angel  by  Benedetto  of  Majano. 
« In  1401. 

" Bentivoglio  died  in  1402.  Jacopo  was  not  called  to  Bologna  until  1425  by 
Cardinal  Correr,  Archbishop  of  Aries.  The  fi;jaros  for  the  door  of  San  Pe- 
tronio were  sculptured  about  1430  38.  These  superb  bas-reliefs  are  among  the 
finest  productions  of  the  Renaissance. 


154 


JACOPO  DELL  A  QtTERCIA 


his  own  hands,  and  bestowing  the  utmost  possible  solicitude 
on  every  part.  On  each  of  the  piers,  by  which  the  archi- 
trave, the  cornice,  and  the  arch,  are  supported,  are  five 
stories,  with  five  on  the  architrave  itself,  which  make  in  all 
fifteen.  These  stories  are  in  basso-rilievo,  and  represent 
passages  from  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  time  when  God 
created  the  world,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  Deluge,  concluding 
with  the  Ark  of  Noah.  In  this  work,  Jacopo  della  Querela 
conferred  great  benefit  on  the  art  of  sculpture,  seeing  that, 
from  the  time  of  the  ancients  to  his  own  day,  there  was  no 
one  who  had  produced  anything  in  basso-rilievo,  insomuch 
that  this  mode  of  treatment  was  rather  lost  than  merely 
fallen  out  of  use.^^  In  the  arch  of  this  door,  the  master 
executed  three  figures  in  marble,  of  the  size  of  life,  and  in 
full  relief :  these  are — Our  Lady  with  the  Child  in  her 
Arms,  an  extremely  beautiful  picture ;  San  Petronio ;  and 
another  saint,  also  admirably  well  done,  and  in  fine  atti- 
tudes. 

The  people  of  Bologna  had  been  fully  convinced  that  it 
was  not  possible  to  execute  a  work  in  marble  which  should 
surpass,  or  even  equal,  that  which  Agostino  and  Agnolo,  of 
Siena,  had  produced  in  the  high  altar  of  San  Francesco, 
in  their  city,  a  work  in  the  old  manner  ;  they  were  infinite- 
ly surprised,  therefore,  on  perceiving  that  this  was  very  far 
superior.  Having  completed  this  undertaking,  and  being 
requested  to  return  to  Lucca, Jacopo  repaired  thither  very 
willingly,  and  in  the  church  of  San  Friano,  of  that  city,  he 

">  This  statement  is  absurd.  Vasari  himself  has  mentioned  the  bas-reliefs 
of  the  Pisani,  of  Orvieto,  Siena,  and  Pistoja. 

"  This  great  sculptor  was  a  true  predecessor  of  Michelangelo,  and  as  with 
Michelangelo  his  conviction  that  he  could  undertake  and  complete  any 
amount  of  work,  his  disdain  of  the  exigencies  of  time,  brought  him  much 
trouble.  Thus  his  labors  at  Bologna  hindered  his  work  at  Siena,  caused  the 
anger  of  his  fellow-citizens,  and  led  them  to  impose  a  fine  upon  him.  On  the 
other  hand  his  Sienese  and  Lucchese  work  delayed  his  sculptures  of  the  great 
doors  of  San  Petronio  at  Bologna  so  much  that  to  Michelangelo's  "tragedy 
of  the  Mausoleum  "  of  Pope  Julius,  Jacopo  can  oppose  his  tragedy  of  the 
gates  of  Bologna,  for  his  death  on  October  20,  1438,  left  these,  his  greatest 
works,  unfinished. 


JACOPO  DELLA  QUERCIA 


155 


executed  ^"^  an  altar-table  of  marble  for  Federigo  di  Maestro 
Trenta  del  Veglia.  This  work  comprised  a  Virgin  holding 
the  infant  Christ  in  her  arms ;  with  San  Bastiano,  Santa 
Lucia,  San  Hieronimo,  and  San  Gismondo  :  the  design  and 
manner  are  alike  good,  and  the  whole  work  is  full  of  grace 
and  beauty ;  in  the  basement,  or  predella,  are  stories  in 
mezzo-rilievo,  placed  beneath  each  saint,  and  representing 
events  from  the  life  of  each.  This  part,  also,  is  greatly  and 
deservedly  admired  ;  for  the  master,  with  much  discern- 
ment, has  made  the  figures  retiring  gradually  on  the  diller- 
ent  planes,  diminishing  them  as  they  fall  into  the  back- 
ground. His  example  had  the  effect  of  increasing  the 
courage  of  other  artists,  and  inciting  them  to  enhance  the 
grace  and  beauty  of  their  works  by  new  and  original  inven- 
tions. When  preparing  the  sepulchres  of  that  Federigo  for 
whom  the  above-named  work  was  executed,  he  portrayed 
the  likenesses, taken  from  nature,  of  Federigo  himself  and 
his  wife,  in  basso-rilievo,  on  two  large  stones.  On  these 
stones  are  also  the  following  words  : — 

"  HOC  OPUS  FECIT  JACOBUS  MAGISTRI  PETRI  DE  8EN1S."  ** 

At  a  later  period  Jacopo  again  proceeded  to  Florence, 
where  the  wardens  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  moved  by  the 
high  reputation  he  had  acquired,  appointed  him  to  execute 
the  decorations  which  surmount  the  door  of  that  cliurch  on 
the  side  towards  the  Nunziata.^^  Here,  within  a  lengthened 
oval  (mandorla),  the  sculptor  represented  the  Madonna 
^  borne  to  heaven  by  a  choir  of  angels,  who  are  singing  to  the 

12  In  1422.  13  In  1416 

"  The  inscription  is  on  the  altar  and  in  the  Milanesi  edition  bears  the  date 
1422. 

'^Baldinucci  quotes  documents  proving  that  these  beautiful  sculptures  of 
the  door  of  the  '■^Mandorla  "  (Duorao  of  Florence),  are  by  Nanni  d' Antonio 
di  Banco  1418-1421.  Donatello  also  sculptured  a  youth  and  an  old  man  for 
this  door ;  these  are  statuettes  upon  pinnacles.  M.  Marcel  Reymond  insists 
in  the  Gazette  des  Bcaiix  Arts^  189.5,  on  the  greatness  of  Nanni  di  Banco  and 
on  his  reputation  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  received  the  order  for  this 
important  Madonna  of  the  Mandorla,  while  Donatello,  still  a  young  man,  was 
only  given  two  statuettes  for  the  door. 


156 


JACOPO  BELLA  QtJfiRCtA 


sound  of  various  instruments.  The  movements  and  atti- 
tudes of  these  figures  are  exceedingly  beautiful,  their  flight 
exhibiting  a  force  of  motion  and  air  of  triumph  such  as  had 
never  before  been  displayed  in  a  work  of  that  character. 
The  Virgin,  also,  is  draped  with  so  much  grace  and  decorum, 
that  nothing  better  could  be  imagined  ;  the  fall  of  the  folds 
being  soft  and  flowing,  while  the  vestments  are  disposed 
with  so  much  art,  that  the  flgure  is  sufficiently  discerned, 
and  they  clothe  the  form  without  wholly  concealing  it.  Be- 
neath the  Virgin  is  St.  Thomas  receiving  the  girdle  ;  and 
the  whole  work  was,  in  fine,  completed  by  Jacopo  in  the 
space  of  four  years,  with  all  the  perfection  which  he  could 
possibly  give  it,  seeing  that  he  was  incited  to  do  his  best, 
not  only  by  his  natural  desire  to  acquit  himself  well,  but 
also  by  the  competition  of  Donate,  Filippo  Brunelleschi, 
and  Lorenzo  di  Bartolo,  from  whose  hands  many  highly- 
lauded  works  were  then  proceeding, — all  which  impelled 
our  artist  to  more  zealous  efforts  ;  and  these  were  so  success- 
fully put  forth,  that,  even  to  the  present  day,  this  work  of 
Jacopo^s  is  considered  by  modern  sculptors  to  be  a  most  rare 
production.  On  the  side  of  the  Madonna,  opposite  to  that 
occupied  by  St.  Thomas,  is  the  figure  of  a  bear  climbing  a 
pear-tree ;  and  respecting  this  fanciful  caprice  of  the  mas- 
ter, much  was  said  in  that  day,  as  there  continues  to  be  in 
our  own  ;  but  I  will  not  repeat  these  observations,  preferring 
that  every  one  should  be  left  to  think  and  opine  of  this 
matter  as  seemeth  to  him  good. 

Jacopo  now  desired  to  revisit  his  native  city,  and  returned 
to  Siena  accordingly.  He  had  no  sooner  arrived  there,  than 
an  opportunity  was  afforded  him  of  establishing  an  honour- 
able memorial  of  himself — as  he  had  desired  to  do — in  the 
place  of  his  birth.  The  Signoria  of  Siena  had  resolved  to 
erect  very  rich  decorations  in  marble  around  the  fountain  on 
the  piazza,  to  which  the  Sienese  masters,  Agostino  and  Ag- 
nolo,  had  conducted  the  water  in  1343  ;  they  therefore  ap- 
pointed 1^  Jacopo  to  complete  the  undertaking  at  the  cost  of 

16  In  1408. 


JACOPO  DELLA  QUERCIA 


157 


2,200  gold  ducats.  The  master  having  prepared  his  model, 
and  sent  for  the  requisite  marbles,  commenced  the  work 
forthwith,  and  this  he  ultimately  completed,  so  much  to  the 
satisfaction  of  his  fellow-citizens,  that  they  no  longer  called 
him  Jacopo  della  Querela,  but  ever  afterwards  named  him 
Jacopo  of  the  Fountain  (Jacopo  della  Fonte).^'  In  the  cen- 
tre of  this  work,  the  sculptor  placed  the  glorious  Virgin 
Mary,  the  especial  advocate  and  protector  of  that  city  ;  her 
figure  is  somewhat  larger  than  those  surrounding  her,  and 
is  of  singular  grace  and  beauty  :  around  the  Madonna  tiie 
artist  then  grouped  the  seven  theological  and  cardinal  virt- 
ues :  the  heads  of  these  figures  are  finished  with  much  del- 
icacy, and  have  a  charming  expression.  This,  and  other 
peculiarities  in  the  treatment,  make  it  obvious  that  Jacopo 
began  to  discover  the  true  path,  and  to  gain  a  clear  percep- 
tion of  the  difficulties  of  his  art :  he  departed  entirely  from 
that  old  manner  to  which  the  sculptors  had  ever  before  ad- 
hered, of  making  their  figures  in  one  rigid  unbending  piece, 
without  beauty  or  movement :  this  master,  on  the  contrary, 
gave  to  his  forms  the  softness  of  flesh,  bestowing  life  and 
grace  on  the  marble,  and  finishing  every  part  of  his  work 
with  infinite  delicacy  and  unwearied  patience.  To  the  work 
just  described,  Jacopo  added  certain  stories  from  the  Old 
Testament :  the  Creation  of  our  first  parents,  that  is  to  say, 
with  the  eating  of  the  forbidden  fruit. In  this  last,  tlie 
female  figure  exhibits,  in  her  attitude,  so  touching  an  ex- 

"  The  commission  for  this  superb  fountain,  Fonte  Gaia,  was  given  January 
22,  1409,  to  Jacopo  della  Querela,  for  the  price  of  2,000  gold  florins.  He  com- 
^  menced  it  in  1412,  and  having  added  to  his  scheme  of  sculjjtnre,  the  price  also 
was  increased  to  2,280  florins,  when  the  fountain  was  finished,  in  1419.  Ja- 
copo's  assistants  were  Francesco  Valdanxbrini  and  Ansano  di  Matteo,  Sienese 
sculptors. 

The  second  baa-relief  represents,  not  the  "  Eating  of  the  Apple,"  but  the 
"  Expulsion  from  Paradise ;  "  also  there  is  very  little,  if  any  difference  in  size, 
between  the  Virgin  and  tiie  otlier  figures.  This  fountain,  having  been  much 
injured  by  time  and  accidents,  was  taken  down  in  part  and  the  hm-reliefs  of 
Jacopo  were  placed  in  the  lower  hall  of  the  Opera  del  Duomo.  Meantime  (in 
1<S58)  Cavaliere  Tito  Sarrocclii.  a  Sienese,  and  one  of  the  best  modern  Italian 
sculptors,  was  entrusted  with  a  restoration  or  rather  careful  reproduction  t)f 
the  fountain,  which  was  completed  in  1800. 


158 


JACOPO  BELLA  QUERCIA 


pression  of  deference  towards  Adam,  as  she  offers  him  the 
apple,  and  her  countenance  is  so  beautiful  and  charming, 
that  it  does  not  seem  possible  for  Adam  to  refuse  the  offer- 
ing. The  whole  of  the  work  is  equally  full  of  admirable 
qualities,  exhibiting  judicious  consideration  and  much  dis- 
cernment throughout  ;  beautiful  children  and  other  orna- 
ments, with  lions  and  wolves,  which  belong  to  the  arms  of 
Siena,  form  its  decorations  ;  the  whole  being  completed  by 
the  practised  hand  of  Jacopo  with  infinite  judgment,  devo- 
tion, and  diligence,  in  the  space  of  twelve  years.  Three 
very  beautiful  stories,  in  bronze,  representing  events  from 
the  life  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  in  mezzo-rilievo,  are  also 
by  this  sculptor.^  They  surround  and  adorn  the  baptismal 
font  of  San  Griovanni,  beneath  the  Duomo,  and  between 
each  of  the  stories  are  figures,  also  in  bronze,  of  one  braccio 
high,  and  in  full  relief.  These  are,  likewise,  truly  beauti- 
ful, and  worthy  of  high  commendation.  For  all  these 
works — which  were,  indeed,  excellent — and  for  the  upright- 
ness of  his  life,  which  was  very  conspicuous,  Jacopo  was  re- 
warded by  the  Signoria  of  Siena,  from  whom  he  received 
the  order  of  knighthood, and  who  shortly  afterwards  made 
him  warden  of  the  Duomo,  which  latter  office  he  exercised 
in  such  a  manner,  that  at  no  time,  either  before  or  after, 
were  the  works  of  that  edifice  more  prudently  directed. 
The  master  survived  his  appointment  to  his  office  only  three 
years ;  he  nevertheless  effected  many  useful  and  creditable 
improvements  in  the  building.  Jacopo  della  Quercia,  al- 
though but  a  sculptor,  drew  extremely  well,  as  may  be  seen 
in  certain  drawings  by  his  hand,  preserved  in  our  book,  and 
which  would  rather  seem  to  have  been  done  by  a  miniature 
painter  than  a  sculptor.    His  portrait,  similar  to  that  here 

19  Only  one  story,  "The  Calling  of  St.  Joachim,"  is  by  Jacopo.  As  he  had 
no  time  to  undertake  the  second,  it  was  given  to  Donatello.  The  "figures  a 
braccio  high,"  Faith,  Hope,  etc.,  are  not  by  della  Quercia.  Jacopo  also 
(with  several  assistants)  made  the  marble  lavatory  of  the  font,  1427.  The 
commission  for  the  bas-relief,  given  in  1417,  was  not  carried  out  before  1430. 

The  dignity  of  knighthood  went  usually  with  the  wardenship  of  the 
Duomo.  20  In  1416.  21  in  1435. 


JACOPO  DELLA  QUERCIA 


159 


given,  was  received  by  me  from  Maestro  Domenico  Becca- 
fumi,  painter  of  Siena,  who  has,  moreover,  related  to  me 
many  circumstances  respecting  the  talents,  goodness,  and 
courtesy  of  Jacopo,  who,  worn  out  by  continual  efforts  and 
perpetual  labours,  died  at  Siena  in  the  sixty-fourth^  year 
of  his  age,  and  was  honourably  borne  to  his  grave,  in  the 
place  of  his  birth,  by  his  kindred  and  friends.  Jacopo  della 
Quercia  was  lamented  not  by  his  friends  and  relations  only, 
but  by  the  whole  city  ;  and  it  must  needs  be  admitted  that 
he  was  fortunate,  in  that  his  many  good  qualities  were  ap- 
preciated and  acknowledged  in  his  native  land,  since  it 
rarely  happens  that  distinguished  men  are  universally  be- 
loved and  honoured  in  their  own  country.^^ 

'2  Sixty-seventh. 

23  Jacopo  della  Quercia  is  one  of  the  greatest  masters  in  the  history  of 
sculpture.  He  carved  grand,  massive  figures,  overmassive  at  times,  often  in- 
correct and  always  thickset,  but  always  full  of  suggestivcness  and  force.  M. 
Wnntz  {Les  Primitifs)  likens  them  to  "  a  diamond  lialf-freed  from  its  ma- 
trix." The  same  author  calls  Jacopo  the  "sincere  Gothic  stone-cutter," 
and  sees  in  him  not  only  the  inheritor  of  mediaeval  tradition,  but  the  apostle 
of  the  new  style ;  a  precursor,  in  the  fullest  force  of  the  word. 

Much  has  been  said  of  Michelangelo's  derivation  from  Luca  Signorelli, 
but  he  is  far  more  directly  descended  from  such  bas-reliefs  as  Jacopo's  Expul- 
sion from  Eden,  or  Adam  laboring  in  the  garden,  or  the  grand  women  of 
Fonte  Gaia,  those  same  hooded  women  swathed  in  great  folds  of  drapery, 
whom  we  find  again  in  the  vaulting  of  the  Sistine  chapel.  "  It  was  in  allying 
Jacopo's  grandeur  of  types,"  says  M.  Miintz,  "to  Donatello's  feverish  vital- 
ity and  movement  that  this  powerful  assunilator  (.Michelangelo)  created  1  i: 
own  manner." 


LUCA  DELLA  ROBBIA,  FLORENTINE  SCULPTORS 


[Born  in  1400  ;  died  1482.] 

Bibliography. — Among  the  works  concerning  the  Robbias  are  Barbet  de 
Jouy,  Les  della  Robbia,  sculpteurs  entert'e  emaillee,  Paris,  1855.  Farabulini, 
Sopra  un  monumento  delta  scuola  di  Luca  della  Robbia,  Rome,  1886.  Caval- 
lucci  and  Molinier,  Les  della  Robbia,  Paris,  1884.  Dr.  Bode,  Uie  Kunstler- 
Familie  della  Robbia  in  the  Dohme  series  and  Luca  della  Robbia  ed  i  saoi 
precursoi  i  in  Flrenze  in  VArchivio  Storico  delV  Arte,  1890-1891.  Dr.  Allan 
Marquand,  Some  Unpublished  Monuments  by  Luca  della  Robbia,  American 
Journal  of  Archaeology,  VIII.  2.  A  Search  for  Della  Robbia  Monuments  in 
Italy,  Scribner's  Magazine,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  681.  J.  C.  Robinson's  Catalogue  of 
Works  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  London,  1862.  W.  Bode,  Jahrbuch 
der  K.  P.  S.,  VI.  Die  Florentiner  Thonbilder  in  der  Ersten  Jahrzehnten 
des  Quattro- Cento,  Luca  della  Robbia. 

THE  Florentine  sculptor,  Luca  della  Robbia,  was  born  in 
the  year  1388,  in  the  house  of  his  forefathers,  which 
is  situated  near  the  church  of  San  Barnaba,  in  Flor- 
ence. He  was  there  carefully  reared  and  educated  until  he 
could  not  only  read  and  write,  but,  according  to  the  custom 
of  most  Florentines,  had  learned  to  cast  accounts  so  far  as 
he  was  likely  to  require  them.  Afterwards  he  was  placed  by 
his  father  to  learn  the  art  of  the  goldsmith  with  Leonardo 
di  Ser  Giovanni,^  who  was  then  held  to  be  the  best  master  in 
Florence  for  that  vocation.  Luca  therefore  having  learned 
to  draw  and  to  model  in  wax,  from  this  Leonardo,  found  his 
confidence  increase,  and  set  himself  to  attempt  certain 

1  Luca  di  Simone  di  Marco  della  Robbia  was  born  in  1399  or  1400  in  a  house 
in  the  Via  Sant'  Egidio  at  Florence.  The  street  which  ran  along  one  side  of 
this  house  was  later  called  Via  dei  Robbia  and  is  now  part  of  the  Via  Nazion- 
ale.  Luca  afterwards  bought  a  house  in  the  Via  Guelfa,  which  remained  in 
the  family  for  several  hundred  years.  See  Gaye,  Carteggio  inedito,  I.  183-186. 

2  It  is  not  known  who  his  master  was  ;  probably  not  Leonardo  di  Ser  Gio- 
vanni.   Baldinucci  suggests  Ghiberti  as  his  master. 


LUCA  BELLA  R0I3BIA 


161 


works  in  marble  and  bronze.  In  these  also  he  succeeded 
tolerably  well,  and  this  caused  him  altogether  to  abandon 
his  trade  of  a  goldsmith  and  give  himself  up  entirely  to 
sculpture,  insomuch  that  he  did  nothing  but  work  with  his 
chisel  all  day,  and  by  night  he  practised  himself  in  drawing; 
and  this  he  did  with  so  much  zeal,  that  when  his  feet  were 
often  frozen  with  cold  in  the  night-time,  he  kept  them  in  a 
basket  of  shavings  to  warm  them,  that  he  might  not  be  com- 
pelled to  discontinue  his  drawings.  Nor  am  I  in  the  least 
astonished  at  this,  since  no  man  ever  becomes  distinguished 
in  any  art  whatsoever  who  does  not  early  begin  to  acquire 
the  power  of  supporting  heat,  cold,  hunger,  thirst,  and 
other  discomforts ;  wherefore  those  persons  deceive  them- 
selves altogether  who  suppose  that  while  taking  their  ease 
and  surrounded  by  all  the  enjoyments  of  the  world,  they 
may  still  attain  to  honourable  distinction — for  it  is  not  by 
sleeping,  but  by  waking,  watching,  and  labouring  contin- 
ually that  proficiency  is  attained  and  reputation  acquired. 

Luca  had  scarcely  completed  his  fifteenth  year,  when  he 
was  taken  with  other  young  sculptors  to  Rimini,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  certain  marble  ornaments  and  figures  for 
Sigismondo  di  Pandolfo  Malatesti,  lord  of  that  city,  who 
was  then  building  a  chapel  in  the  church  of  San  Francesco,^ 
and  erecting  a  sepulchre  for  his  wife,  who  had  recently  died. 
In  this  work  Luca  della  Robbia  gave  a  creditable  sj^jecimen 
of  his  abilities,  in  some  bassi-rilievi,  which  are  still  to  be 
seen  there,  but  he  was  soon  recalled  to  Florence  by  the  war- 
dens of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  and  there  executed  five  small 
'  historical  representations  for  the  campanile  of  that  cathe- 
dral. These  are  placed  on  that  side  of  the  tower  which  is 
turned  towards  the  church,  and  where,  according  to  the  de- 
sign of  Giotto,  they  were  required  to  fill  the  space  beside 
those  delineating  the  arts  and  sciences  previously  executed, 
as  we  have  said,  by  Andrea  Pisano.   In  the  first  relief,  Luca 

'  Malatesta  commenced  the  church  of  San  Francesco  in  1447,  when  Luca  was 
forty-seven  years  old,  and  it  is  improbable  that  the  latter  ever  worked  there 
at  aU. 

11 


162 


LUCA  BELLA  ROBBIA 


portrayed  San  Donato  teaching  grammar  ;  in  the  second 
are  Plato  and  Aristotle,  who  represent  philosophy ;  in  the 
third  is  a  figure  playing  the  lute,  for  music  ;  in  the  fourth, 
a  statue  of  Ptolemy,  to  signify  astronomy  ;  and  in  the  fifth, 
Euclid,  for  geometry.  These  rilievi,^  whether  for  correct- 
ness of  design,  grace  of  composition,  or  beauty  of  execution, 
greatly  surpass  the  two  completed,  as  we  have  before  said, 
by  Giotto,  and  of  which  one  represents  painting,  by  a  figure 
of  Apelles,  occupied  in  the  exercise  of  his  art ;  the  other 
Phidias  working  with  his  chisel,  to  represent  sculpture. 
The  superintendents  before  mentioned,  therefore,  who,  in 
addition  to  the  merits  of  Luca,  had  a  further  motive  in  the 
persuasions  of  Messer  Vieri  dei  Medici,  a  great  and  popular 
citizen  of  that  day,  by  whom  Luca  was  much  beloved,  com- 
missioned him,  in  the  year  1405,  to  prepare  the  marble  orna- 
ments of  the  organ  which  the  wardens  were  then  causing  to 
be  constructed  on  a  very  grand  scale,  to  be  placed  over  the 
door  of  the  sacristy  in  the  above-named  cathedral.^  In  the 
prosecution  of  this  work,  Luca  executed  certain  stories  for 

^  Professor  J.  Henry  Middleton  and  others  are  convinced  from  the  style  of 
these  reliefs  that  Luca  did  them  from  designs  which  had  been  left  by  Giotto. 
Professor  Middleton  also  corrects  Vasari,  who  speaks  of  Euclid  and  Ptolemy 
as  being  represented  in  different  reliefs.  These  sculptures,  ordered  in  1437, 
were  finished  in  1440. 

s  This  organ-tribune,  executed  1431-1440,  was  taken  down  in  1688.  In  1823 
the  reliefs  of  singing  children  were  put  for  a  time  into  the  Uffizi,  then  were 
taken  to  the  Bargello.  In  1867  the  architect  De  Fabris  found  in  the  store- 
houses of  the  cathedral  works  certain  fragments  of  consoles,  cornices,  etc. , 
which  belonged  to  the  original  organ-lofts  of  Luca  and  Donatello.  Both  of 
these  were  carefully  reconstructed  and  set  up  in  the  museum  of  the  Opera  dei 
Duomo.  They  are  not  only  two  of  the  most  important  and  beautiful  works 
of  the  Renaissance,  but  they  are  also  a  most  instructive  contrast  to  each  other, 
showing  the  different  styles  of  Luca  and  Donatello  and  especially  emphasizing 
Vasari's  criticism.  Luca's  reliefs,  at  once  so  beautiful  and  so  famous,  so  de- 
lightful when  studied  close  at  hand  in  the  Bargello  museum,  now  that  they  are 
integral  parts  of  a  tribune  raised  twenty-five  feet  above  the  pavement,  lose 
much  of  their  effect.  Even  the  architectural  setting,  exquisite  as  it  is  in  taste, 
and  far  more  beautiful  than  that  of  Donatello,  is  less  effective  than  is  the 
latter.  Donatello's  organ-loft  tells  as  one  powerful  whole,  Luca's  as  a  series 
of  five  bas-reliefs,  which  have  to  be  examined  with  a  glass.  Nevertheless 
when  thus  examined  these  singing  and  playing  children  justify  Perkins'  quota- 
tion, "Ueard  melodies  are  sweet,  but  those  unheard  are  sweeter." 


LUCA  DELL  A  KOBBIA 


163 


the  basement,  which  represent  the  choristers,  who  are  sing- 
ing, in  different  attitudes  ;  to  the  execution  of  these  he  gave 
such  earnest  attention  and  succeeded  so  well,  that  although 
the  figures  are  sixteen  braccia  from  the  ground,  the  spec- 
tator can  nevertheless  distinguish  the  inflation  of  throat  in 
the  singers,  and  the  action  of  the  leader,  as  he  beats  the 
measure  with  his  hands,  with  all  the  varied  modes  of  playing 
on  different  instruments,  the  choral  songs,  the  dances,  and 
other  pleasures  connected  with  music,  which  are  there  de- 
lineated by  the  artist.  On  the  grand  cornice  of  this  work, 
Luca  erected  two  figures  of  gilded  metal ;  these  represent 
two  angels  entirely  nude,  and  finished  with  great  skill,  as 
indeed  is  the  whole  performance,  which  was  held  to  be  one 
of  rare  beauty,  although  Donatello,  who  afterwards  con- 
structed the  ornaments  of  the  organ  placed  opjiosite  to  this, 
displayed  much  greater  judgment  and  more  facility  than  had 
been  exhibited  by  Luca  in  his  work,  as  will  be  mentioned  in 
its  proper  place  ;  for  Donato  completed  his  work  almost  en- 
tirely from  the  rougli  sketches,  without  delicacy  of  finish, 
so  that  it  has  a  much  better  effect  in  the  distance  than  that 
of  Luca,  which,  although  well  designed  and  carefully  done, 
becomes  lost  to  the  observer  in  the  distance,  from  the  fine- 
ness of  its  finisli,  and  is  not  so  readily  distinguished  by  the 
eye  as  is  that  of  Donato,  which  is  merely  sketched. 

And  this  is  a  point  to  which  artists  should  give  much  con- 
sideration, since  experience  teaches  us  that  whatever  is  to  be 
looked  at  from  a  distance,  Avhether  painting,  sculpture,  or 
any  other  work  of  similar  kind,  has  ever  more  force  and  ef- 
fect when  merely  a  striking  and  beautiful  sketch  than  when 
delicately  finished  ;  and,  besides  the  effect  here  attributed 
to  distance,  it  would  appear,  also,  that  the  poetic  fire  of  the 
author  frequently  acts  with  most  efficiency  in  a  rapid  sketch, 
by  which  his  inspiration  is  expressed  in  a  few  strokes  sud- 
denly thrown  off  in  the  first  ardours  of  composition  :  a  too 
anxious  care  and  labour,  on  the  contrary,  will  often  deprive 
the  works  of  him  who  never  knows  when  to  take  his  hands 
from  them,  of  all  force  and  character.    He  who  knows  how 


164 


LUCA  DELLA  ROBBIA 


closely,  not  only  painting,  but  all  the  arts  of  design  resemble 
poetry,  knows  also  that  verse  proceeding  from  the  poetic 
furor  is  the  only  good  and  true  poesy  :  in  like  manner  the 
works  of  men  excellent  in  the  arts  of  design,  are  much 
better  when  produced  by  the  force  of  a  sudden  inspiration, 
that  when  they  are  the  result  of  long  beating  about,  and 
gradually  spinning  forth  with  pains  and  labour.  Whoever 
has  the  clear  idea  of  what  he  desires  to  produce  in  his  mind, 
as  all  ought  to  have  from  the  first  instant,  will  ever  march 
confidently  and  with  readiness  towards  the  perfection  of  the 
work  which  he  proposes  to  execute.  Nevertheless,  as  all 
minds  are  not  of  the  same  character,  there  are,  doubt- 
less, some  who  can  only  do  well  when  they  proceed  slowly, 
but  the  instances  are  rare.  And,  not  to  confine  ourselves  to 
painting,  there  is  a  proof  of  this  among  poets,  as  we  are  told 
in  the  practice  of  the  most  venerable  and  most  learned 
Bembo,  who  laboured  in  such  sort  that  he  would  sometimes 
expend  many  months,  nay,  possibly  years,  if  we  dare  give 
credit  to  the  words  of  those  who  affirm  it,  in  the  production 
of  a  sonnet.  Wherefore,  there  need  be  no  great  matter  of 
astonishment  if  something  similar  should  occasionally  happen 
to  certain  of  the  men  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  our  arts  : 
but  the  rule  is,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  contrary,  as  we 
have  said  above,  even  though  a  certain  exterior  and  appar- 
ent delicacy  of  manner  (which  is  often  a  mere  concealment, 
by  industry,  of  defects  in  essential  qualities)  should  some- 
times obtain  the  suffrages  of  the  unthinking  vulgar  more 
readily  than  the  really  good  work,  which  is  the  product  of 
ability  and  judgment,  though  not  externally  so  delicately 
finished  and  furbished. 

But  to  return  to  Luca  :  when  he  had  completed  the  above 
named  decorations,  which  gave  much  satisfaction,  he  re- 
ceived a  commission^  for  the  bronze  door  of  the  before- 

•  In  1446,  Michelozzo,  Luca  and  Maso  di  Bartolommeo  were  commissioned 
to  execute  these  doors  (first  sacristy) ;  Maso  died,  and  Michelozzo  being  ab- 
sent, Luca  completed  them  alone  in  1464;  they  are  not  among  his  best  works, 
Giovanni  di  Bartolommeo  did  the  frame- work  of  th?  doofq.    ge§  Milanesi, 


LUCA  BELLA  ROBBIA 


165 


mentioned  sacristy.  This  he  divided  into  ten  square  com- 
partments, or  pictures  (quadri),  five,  namely,  on  each  side, 
and  at  all  the  angles  where  these  joined  he  placed  the  head 
of  a  man,  by  way  of  ornament,  on  the  border  :  no  two  heads 
were  alike,  some  being  young,  others  old,  or  of  middle  age  ; 
some  with  beard,  others  without ;  all  were  varied,  in  short, 
and  in  these  different  modes  every  one  was  beautiful,  of  its 
kind,  insomuch  that  the  frame- work  of  that  door  was  most 
richly  adorned.  In  the  compartments  themselves,  the 
master  represented  the  Madonna  (to  begin  with  the  upper 
part),  holding  the  infant  Christ  in  her  arms,  in  the  first 
square,  a  group  of  infinite  grace  and  beauty  ;  with  Jesus  is- 
suing from  the  tomb,  in  that  opposite.  Beneath  these 
figures,  in  each  of  the  first  four  squares,  is  the  statue  of  an 
Evangelist,  and  below  the  Evangelists  are  the  four  doctors  of 
the  church,  who  are  all  writing  in  different  attitudes.  The 
whole  work  is  so  finely  executed,  and  so  delicate,  that  one 
clearly  perceives  how  much  Luca  had  profited  by  having 
been  a  goldsmith. 

But  when,  at  the  conclusion  of  these  works,  the  master 
made  up  the  reckoning  of  what  he  had  received,  and  com- 
pared this  with  the  time  he  had  expended  in  their  produc- 
tion, he  perceived  that  he  had  made  but  snuill  gains,  and 
that  the  labour  had  been  excessive  ;  he  determined,  there- 
fore, to  abandon  marble  and  bronze,  resolving  to  try  if  he 
could  not  derive  a  more  profitable  return  from  some  other 
source.  Wherefore,  reflecting  that  it  cost  but  little  trouble 
'  to  work  in  clay,  which  is  easily  managed,  and  that  only  one 
thing  was  required,  namely,  to  find  some  method  by  which 
the  work  produced  in  that  material  should  be  rendered 
durable,  he  considered  and  cogitated  with  so  much  good 
will  on  this  subject,  that  he  finally  discovered  the  means  of 
defending  such  productions  from  the  injuries  of  time.  And 
the  matter  was  on  this  wise  :  after  having  made  experiments 
innumerable,  Luca  found  that  if  he  covered  his  figures  with 
a  coating  of  glaze,  formed  from  the  mixture  of  tin,  litharge, 
antimony,  and  other  minerals  and  mixtures,  carefully  pre- 


LUCA  DELLA  KOBBIA 


pared  by  the  action  of  fire,  in  a  furnace  made  for  the  pnr- 
pose,  the  desired  effect  was  produced  to  perfection,  and  that 
an  almost  endless  durability  might  thus  be  secured  to  works 
in  clay.  For  this  process,  then,  Luca,  as  being  its  in- 
ventor,"^ received  the  highest  praise  ;  and,  indeed,  all  future 
ages  will  be  indebted  to  him  for  the  same. 

The  master  having  thus,  as  we  have  seen,  accomplished 
all  that  he  desired,  resolved  that  his  first  works  in  this  kind 
should  be  those  which  are  in  the  arch  over  the  bronze  door 
which  he  had  made  beneath  the  organ,  for  the  sacristy  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  wherein  he  accordingly  placed  a 
Kesurrection  of  Christ,  so  beautiful  for  that  time,  that,  when 
fixed  up,  it  was  admired  by  every  one  who  beheld  it,  as  a 
truly  rare  production.  Moved  by  this  success,  the  superin- 
tendents resolved  that  the  arch  above  the  door  of  the  op- 
posite sacristy,  where  Donatello  had  executed  the  decora- 
tions of  the  other  organ,  should  be  filled  by  Luca  della 
Robbia  with  similar  figures  and  works  in  terra-cotta  ;  where- 
upon, the  artist  executed  an  Ascension  of  Christ  into 
Heaven,  which  is  an  extremely  beautiful  work.^ 

The  master,  meanwhile,  was  not  satisfied  with  his  remark- 
able, useful,  and  charming  invention,  which  is  more  partic- 

^  Mr.  Allan  Marquand  emphasizes  the  fact  that  Luca  was  not  the  inventor 
of  these  glazes,  which  existed  long  before  his  time.  See  his  article,  A  Search 
for  Della  Robbia  Monuments  in  Italy,  Scribner's  Magazine,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  683. 
Receipts  for  glazing  pottery  are  given  in  the  Bolognese  MS.,  entitled  "  >S'<?- 
greti  per  colori,''^  printed  in  Mrs.  Merrifield's  Original  Treatises  of  Painting, 
London,  1849.  See  also  Brogniart,  Traite  des  Ai'ts  Ceramiques  ou  des  Poteries 
considerees  da7is  leur  histoire,  leur  pratique,  et  leur  theorie.  Cavallucci  and 
Molinier  have  compiled  a  catalogue  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  Della  Robbia 
monuments  in  Italy.  There  is  also  a  list  of  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  works 
by  the  Della  Robbias  and  their  school  in  Perkins'  Tuscan  Sculptors,  II.  206- 
209.  In  the  American  Journal  of  Archaeology  (VIII.  2)  Mr.  Allan  Marquand, 
who  has  made  special  researches  regarding  the  Robbias,  calls  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  remarkable  medallions  in  the  Collegiate  Church  of  the  Im- 
pruneta  near  Florence  are  practically  unknown,  since  one  of  the  latest  and 
*    best  Florentine  guide-books  (Marcotti's)  ignores  them. 

8  The  Resurrection  dates  from  1443,  the  Ascension  from  1446 ;  Vasari  errs 
in  saying  that  Luca  began  his  terra-cottas  only  after  having  become  tired  of 
the  great  labor  involved  in  bronze  casting  and  sculpture  in  stone. 


LUCA  DELLA  ROBBIA 


167 


ularly  valuable  for  places  liable  to  damp,  or  nnsuited,  from 
other  causes,  for  paintings,  but  still  continued  seeking  some- 
thing more ;  and,  instead  of  making  his  terra-cotta  figures 
simply  white,  he  added  the  further  invention  of  giving 
them  colour,^  to  the  astonishment  and  delight  of  all  who 
beheld  them.  Among  the  first  who  gave  Luca  della  Rob- 
])ia  commissions  to  execute  works  of  this  description,  was 
the  magnificent  Piero  di  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  who  caused  him 
to  decorate  a  small  study,  built  by  his  father  Cosmo,  in  his 
palace,  with  figures  in  this  coloured  terra."  The  ceiling 
of  the  study  is  a  half  circle  ;  and  here,  as  well  as  for  the 
pavement,  Luca  executed  various  devices,  which  was  a  sin- 
gular, and,  for  summer  time,  very  convenient  mode  of 
decorating  a  pavement.  And  it  is  certainly  much  to  be  ad- 
mired, that,  although  this  work  was  then  extremely  diffi- 
cult, numberless  precautions  and  great  knowledge  being 
required  in  the  burning  of  the  clay,  yet  Luca  completed  the 
whole  with  such  perfect  success,  that  the  ornaments  both  of 
the  ceiling  and  pavement  appear  to  be  made,  not  of  many 
pieces,  but  of  one  only.^^  The  fame  of  these  works  having 
spread,  not  only  throughout  Italy,  but  over  all  Europe, 
there  was  so  many  persons  desirous  of  possessing  them,  that 

*  Luca,  even  in  the  beginning,  used  yellow,  green,  and  violet  (see  the  Evan- 
gelists in  the  Pazzi  chapel) ;  but  these  colors  occur  only  in  very  small  quanti- 
ties, white  and  blue  being  the  basis  of  everything  which  he  did.  Andrea  was 
nearly  as  reserved  as  Luca  in  his  use  of  color,  but  the  later  Robbia  sculptors 
yielded  to  the  popular  desire  for  bright  and  varied  pigments,  so  that  their 
altar-pieces  and  friezes  are  sometimes  vulgar  when  compared  with  the  master- 
pieces of  Andrea  and  Luca. 

Herr  K.  E.  Von  Liphart  has  attributed  the  Evangelists  of  the  Pazzi  chapel 
to  Brunelleschi ;  Dr.  Bode  accepted  but  afterwards  decided  against  this  at- 
tribution. 

'oMilane.si  cites  Filarete's  Trattato  (V Architettura  in  the  Magliabecchian 
Library  as  the  source  from  which  Vasari  drew  his  description  of  the  study  of 
Piero  di  Cosimo  de'  Medici.  It  is  surmised  that  the  medallions  of  the  months 
now  at  South  Kensington  may  have  come  from  this  studio.  They  are  de- 
scribed in  detail  in  J.  C.  Robinson's  Catalogue  of  Works  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  pp.  59-63.  The  same  author  questions  Vasari's  statement 
that  Robbia  works  were  exported  even  to  other  parts  of  Italy,  as  they  are  now 
as  rare  in  other  districts  as  they  are  abundant  in  the  churches  and  convents  of 
Tuscany.    See  Robinson,  op.  tit..,  p.  49. 


168  LaCA  BELLA  ROBBIA 

the  Florentine  merchants  kept  Luca  della  Robbia  continu- 
ally at  this  labour,  to  his  great  profit :  they  then  dispatched 
the  products  all  over  the  world.  And  now  the  master  him- 
self could  no  longer  supply  the  numbers  required  ;  he  there- 
fore took  his  brothers,  Ottaviano  and  Agostino  from  the 
chisel,  and  set  them  to  these  works,  from  which  both  he 
and  they  gained  much  more  than  they  had  previously  been 
able  to  earn  by  their  works  in  sculpture  :  for,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  commissions  which  they  executed  for  the  various 
parts  of  Tuscany,  they  sent  many  specimens  of  their  art 
into  France  and  Spain.  The  above-named  Piero  dei  Me- 
dici, also  employed  them  extensively,  more  especially  in  the 
church  of  San  Miniato-a-Monte,  where  they  decorated  the 
ceiling  of  the  marble  chapel,  which  is  raised  on  four  col- 
umns in  the  centre  of  the  church.  This  ceiling  was  di- 
vided into  eight  compartments,  producing  a  very  beautiful 
effect.  But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  work  of  this  kind 
that  proceeded  from  the  hands  of  these  artists  was  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  chapel  of  San  Jacopo,  in  the  same  church.  Here 
the  cardinal  of  Portugal  lies  entombed.  The  chapel  has  no 
sharp  angles  ;  but  within  four  circular  compartments,  the 
masters  represented  the  four  Evangelists  ;  and,  in  the  midst 
of  the  ceiling,  also  within  a  medallion,  they  depicted  the 
Holy  Spirit,  filling  all  the  remaining  spaces  with  scales, 
which,  following  the  lines  of  the  ceiling,  diminished  grad- 
ually as  they  approached  the  centre ;  the  whole  executed 
with  so  much  care  and  diligence,  that  nothing  better  in  that 
manner  could  possibly  be  imagined. 

At  a  later  period,  Luca  della  Robbia  produced  a  figure  of 
the  Virgin,  surrounded  by  numerous  angels  :  a  work  of  infi- 

"  Ottaviano  and  Agostino  di  Duccio.  They  were  not  even  members  of  the 
Robbia  family  nor  related  to  it.  Luca  had  two  brothers :  one,  Ser  Giovanni 
was  a  notary  to  the  Signoria,  while  Marco,  though  not  a  sculptor,  was  the 
father  of  Andrea,  the  most  important  member  of  this  family  of  artists  after 
Luca. 

'2  The  ceiling  of  the  central  raised  chapel  of  San  Miniato  is  in  situ,  as  well 
as  are  the  four  Evangelists  of  the  chapel  in  which  the  young  Cardinal  Forto- 
gallo  was  buried. 


LtJCA  DELLA  ROBBIA 


169 


nite  animation  and  beauty,  which  was  placed  in  the  small 
arch  over  the  door  of  the  church  of  San  Piero  Buonconsiglio, 
situated  below  the  Mercato  Vecchio  ;  and  over  the  door  of  a 
small  church  near  San  Piero  Maggiore  he  executed  another 
Madonna,  within  a  half  circle,  also  attended  by  angels ; 
which  are  considered  extremely  beautiful.  In  the  chapter- 
house of  Santa  Oroce,  which  had  been  erected  by  the  Pazzi 
family,  under  the  direction  of  Pippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco, 
Luca  also  executed  the  figures  of  glazed  terra-cotta,  both 
those  outside,  and  those  within  the  building. This  master 
is,  moreover,  asserted  to  have  sent  various  figures,  in  full 
relief,  and  of  great  beauty,  to  the  King  of  Spain,  with  other 
works  in  marble.  For  Naples,  also,  he  constructed  the 
marble  sepulchre  of  the  Infant,  brother  to  the  'Duke  of 
Calabria  :  this  was  decorated  with  ornaments  in  the  glazed 
terra-cotta ;  it  was  executed  in  Florence,  and  afterwards 
sent  to  Naples  :  Luca  being  assisted  in  its  completion  by  his 
brother  Agostino. 

After  these  things,  the  master  still  sought  to  make  further 
inventions,  and  laboured  to  discover  a  method  by  which 
figures  and  historical  representations  might  be  coloured  on 
level  surfaces  of  terra-cotta,  proposing  thereby  to  secure  a 
more  life-like  effect  to  the  pictures.  Of  this  he  made  an 
experiment  in  a  medallion,  which  is  above  the  tabernacle 
of  the  four  saints,  near  Or  San  Michele,*  on  the  plane  of 
which  our  artist  figured  the  insignia  and  instruments  of 
the  Guilds  of  Manufacturers,  divided  into  five  compart- 
ments, and  decorated  with  very  beautiful  ornaments.  In 
the  same  place  he  adorned  two  other  medallions  in  relief ; 
in  one  he  placed  a  Madonna  for  the  Guild  of  the  Apothe- 
caries, and  in  the  other  a  lily  on  a  bale,  for  the  Tribunal  of 
tlie  Merchants,  with  festoons  of  fruit  aiul  foliage  of  different 

*  These  medallions  are  on  the  outer  walls  of  the  church  of  Or  San  Michele. 

'■•The  lunette  was  removed  to  the  Bargollo  some  time  before  the  demolition 
of  the  Mercato  Vecchio  and  the  destruction  of  the  church. 

"In  the  Via  dell'  Agnolo,  over  the  door  of  a  house  which  was  once  the 
Scuola  de'  Cherici. 

IS  In  situ. 


170  LUCA  BELLA  ROBBIA 

kinds,  so  admirably  done  that  they  seem  rather  to  be  the 
natural  substance  than  merely  burnt  and  painted  clay.^^ 

For  Messer  Benozzo  Federighi,  Bishop  of  Fiesole,  Luca 
della  Robbia  erected  a  sepulchre  of  marble,  on  which  he 
placed  the  recumbent  figure  of  Federigo,  taken  from  nature, 
with  three  half-length  figures  besides,  and  between  the 
columns  which  adorn  this  work,  the  master  depicted  gar- 
lands with  clusters  of  fruit  and  foliage,  so  life-like  and 
natural  that  the  pencil  could  produce  nothing  better  in  oil- 
painting.  This  work  is  of  a  truth  most  rare  and  wonderful, 
the  lights  and  shadows  having  been  managed  so  admirably, 
that  one  can  scarcely  imagine  it  possible  to  produce  such 
effects  in  works  that  have  to  be  completed  by  the  action  of 
fire.  And  if  this  artist  had  been  accorded  longer  life,  many 
other  remarkable  works  would  doubtless  have  proceeded 
from  his  hands,  since,  but  a  short  time  before  his  death,  he 
had  begun  to  paint  figures  and  historical  representations  on 
a  level  surface,  whereof  I  formerly  saw  certain  specimens  in 
his  house, which  led  me  to  believe  that  he  would  have  suc- 
ceeded perfectly,  had  not  death,  which  almost  always  carries 
off  the  most  distinguished  men  just  at  the  moment  when 
they  are  about  to  do  some  good  to  the  world,  borne  him 
from  his  labours  before  the  time.^^ 

"  Mr.  Allan  Marquand  (American  Archaeological  Journal,  1893,  pp.  155-170) 
attributes  to  Luca  della  Robbia,  I.  The  medallion  of  the  Art  of  Silk  hitherto 
ascribed  to  Andrea  della  Robbia. 

II.  The  medallion  (in  flat  glazed  ware)  of  Master  -  workers  in  Stone  and 
Wood. 

III.  The  medallion  of  Physicians  and  Druggists. 

IV".  The  medallion  of  the  Universitd  de'  Mercanti  (January  and  Febru- 
ary, 1463),  the  latest  dated  work  of  Luca. 

All  these  are  on  the  exterior  walls  of  the  church  of  Or  San  Michele. 

1^  This  tomb,  executed  1454-1456,  is  now  in  the  church  of  San  Francesco  di 
Paolo  near  the  hill  of  Bellosguardo. 

18  One  of  these  pictures  on  flat  glazed  tile  (God  the  Father  between  two 
adoring  angels)  is  in  the  Museo  dell'  Opera  del  Duomo. 

1''  According  to  Milanesi  the  Luca  della  Robbia  buried  February  20,  1483,  in 
San  Pier  Maggiore  and  supposed  by  Baldmucci  to  have  been  Luca  the  philol- 
ogist, was  in  reality  our  artist  Luca  the  sculptor,  since  the  dates  prove  con- 
clusively that  it  could  not  have  been  the  philologist. 


LUCA  BELLA  ROBBIA 


171 


When  Liica  della  Robbia  had  thus  prematurely  departed, 
there  still  remained  Ottaviano  and  Agostino,  his  brothers,^ 
who  survived  him,^^  and  to  Agostino  was  born  another  Lu- 
ca,  who  was  a  most  learned  man  in  his  day.^  But  first  of 
Agostino  himself,  respecting  whom  we  have  to  relate  that, 
devoting  himself  to  art  as  Luca  had  done,  he  decorated  the 
fagade  of  the  church  of  San  Bernardino  in  Perugia,  in  the 
year  1461,  producing  three  historical  representations  in 
basso-rilievo,  with  four  figures  in  full  relief,  admirably  exe- 
cuted in  a  very  delicate  manner.  Beneath  this  work  the 
artist  wrote  his  name  in  the  following  words  : — 

"  AUQUSTINI  PliORBNTINI  LAPICID-B." 

Of  the  same  family  was  Andrea  — he  was,  indeed,  a 

20  See  note  11. 

Agostino  d' Antonio  di  Duccio  is  probably  meant.  This  sculptor,  whose 
personality  and  work  have  been  made  known  to  us  by  M.  Charles  Yriarte  and 
Dr.  Bode,  was  born  in  Florence  (1418),  and  died  in  Perugia  about  1498. 

This  inventive  and  intensely  personal  artist  is  author  of  many  of  the  reliefs 
in  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  at  Rimini,  of  four  reliefs  (1442)  in  the  fufade  of 
the  cathedral  of  Modena  and  of  the  decoration  of  the  facade  of  the  oratory  of 
San  Bernardino  at  Perugia.  His  work  is  excessively  careless,  ill  drawn,  and 
ill  constructed,  yet  full  of  style,  of  freshness  and  grace.  As  M.  Miintz  says  in 
les  Primitifs^  it  is  usually  a  mere  improvisation,  but  is  picturesque  and  enter- 
taining to  an  extraordinary  degree.  Besides  the  works  mentioned  above  he 
did  others  in  San  Domenico,  San  Lorenzo  and  the  Misericordia,  all  in  Perugia. 
Ottaviano  his  brother,  born  1422,  was  a  goldsmith. 

■^■^  This  second  Luca  (born  1484)  son  of  Simone  di  Marco  was  a  philologist 
and  also  a  prose  writer  and  historian  of  some  eminence. 

23  Andrea  della  Robbia  (1435-1525),  son  of  the  elder  Luca's  brother  Marco, 
rarely  worked  in  marble  and  "  did  not  attain  to  the  gravity  or  grandeur 
which  characterized  the  style  of  his  uncle,"  giving  more  thought  to  decorative 
picturesqueness.  Hardly  anything,  however,  could  be  more  charming  or  more 
perfect  in  its  way  than  is  his  best  work — such  as  the  lovely  luuette  above  the 
door  of  the  Duomo  at  Prato ;  the  exquisitely  decorative  Annunciation  which 
fills  a  lunette  at  the  end  of  a  corridor  in  the  courtyard  of  the  Innocenti  Hos- 
pital at  Florence  ;  the  famous  medallions  upon  the  fagade  of  the  same  build- 
ing, representing  infants  swathed  like  the  Florentine  babies  in  stiff  bandages  ; 
or  the  children's  heads  in  his  rich  and  elaborate  altar-pieces  of  the  cathedral 
at  Arezzo ;  or  in  other  works  at  Al  Vernia  and  elsewhere.  The  medallions  of 
the  Loggia  of  San  Paolo,  in  Florence,  attributed  to  Andrea  were  probably 
finished  by  him,  but  must  have  been  begun  by  Luca,  as  they  aro  dated  1451  to 
1495.    The  heads  at  the  ends  are  said  to  be  the  portraits  of  the  two  sculptors, 


172 


LTJCA  DELLA  ROBBIA 


nephew  of  Lnca — who  also  worked  in  marble  with  great 
ability,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  della 
Grazie,  without  the  city  of  Arezzo,  where  he  was  commis- 
sioned by  the  commune  to  execute  a  vast  marble  ornament, 
comprising  a  large  number  of  minute  figures,  some  in 
mezzo-rilievo  and  others  in  full  relief.  This  was  intended 
as  the  framework  of  a  Virgin  from  the  hand  of  Parri  di 
Spinello,  the  Aretine  painter.  Andrea  likewise  prepared 
the  decorations  of  the  chapel  belonging  to  Puccio  di  Magio, 
in  the  church  of  San  Francesco  in  the  same  city  :  a  work 
which  is  also  in  terra-cotta.  He,  moreover,  executed  the 
picture  of  the  Circumcision  for  the  Bacci  family.  There  is, 
besides,  a  most  beautiful  picture  from  his  hand  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Grado  :  which  contains  numerous 
figures.    Over  the  high  altar  of  the  Brotherhood  of  the 

Andrea's  only  work  in  marble  is  the  altar-piece  of  S.  M.  delleGrazie  at  Arezzo. 
All  his  works  executed  for  that  city  exist  except  the  Circumcision  (modelled 
for  the  Bacci).  At  Prato  he  executed  the  frieze  and  medallions  for  the  Ma- 
donna delle  Carceri.  See  the  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  VII.  4,  p.  423, 
for  the  Assumption  in  the  New  York  Metropolitan  Museum,  and  Le  Gallerie 
Italiane^  1894,  p.  72,  for  the  Madonna  recently  acquired  by  the  Bargello. 

A  portrait  of  Andrea  della  Robbia  was  painted  by  Andrea  del  Sarto  in  the 
first  fresco  to  the  left  as  you  enter  the  portico  of  the  Annunziata  at  Florence. 
Robbia  is  the  old  man  who  wears  a  red  barret  and  leans  upon  a  cane.  Luca 
the  younger  figures  in  the  same  fresco,  and  Girolamo  della  Robbia's  portrait 
is  in  the  picture  of  the  death  of  St.  Philip. 

Andrea  had  several  sons.  The  eldest  was  Giovanni,  1469-1529,  who  together 
with  Buglioni  became  the  author  of  the  famous  frieze  of  the  Ceppo,  in  the  Hos- 
pital at  Pistoja,  a  dramatic  and  highly  colored  work,  differing  wholly  from  the 
works  of  the  elder  Robbias.  He  left  other  works  in  S.  Medardo  of  Arcevia, 
in  S.  Silvestro  at  Pisa,  in  Santa  Maria  Novella  at  Florence  and  elsewhere, 
Paolo  and  Marco  were  also  sculptors  but  became  monks. 

Paolo  della  Robbia  left  only  one  authenticated  work,  an  Adoration  of  the 
Infant  Christ  in  Santo  Spirito  at  Siena,  1504.  There  is  doubt  whether  Paolo 
was  a  son  of  Andrea,  and  Signer  D.  Gnoli,  UArch  Stor.,  II.  82-85,  says  that 
for  Fra  Ambrogio  (Paolo)  we  must  substitute  Fra  Mattia  della  Robbia,  who 
executed  for  Cardinal  Armellini,  1527-32,  an  altar-piece  in  the  church  of 
Montecassiano. 

M.  P.  Trabaud,  in  the  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts  for  1890,  attributes  to  some 
one  of  the  Delia  Robbias  a  relief  with  many  full-length  figures  (a  Descent 
from  the  Cross)  in  the  church  of  La  Major  at  Marseilles.  Luca  II.  (1475-1550) 
worked  for  Leo  X.  in  the  Vatican.  Girolamo  (1488-1566)  became  sculptor  to 
several  successive  kings  of  France. 


LUCA  BELLA  ROBBIA 


173 


Trinity  there  is  also  a  work  of  Andrea  della  Robbia,  repre- 
senting God  the  Father,  who  supports  the  body  of  the  cru- 
cified Redeemer  in  his  arms.  This  group  is  surrounded  by 
a  multitude  of  angels,  while  San  Donato  and  San  Bernardo 
are  kneeling  below.^ 

In  like  manner,  this  master  executed  various  pictures  for 
the  church  and  other  buildings  of  the  Sasso  della  Vernia, 
and  these  have  retained  their  beauty  in  that  desert  place, 
where  no  painting  could  have  been  preserved  even  for  a  few 
years.^  Andrea  likewise  executed  all  the  figures  in  glazed 
terra-cotta,  which  decorate  the  loggia  of  the  hospital  of  San 
Paolo  in  Florence,  and  which  are  tolerably  good.  The 
boys,  some  naked,  others  in  swathing-clothes,  wliich  are  in 
the  medallions  between  the  arches,  in  the  loggia  of  the 
hospital  of  the  Innocenti,  are  also  by  Andrea  della  Robbia. 
These  are  all  truly  admirable,  and  give  a  favourable  idea  of 
the  ability  and  knowledge  of  art  possessed  by  this  master ; 
there  are,  besides,  a  large — nay,  an  almost  infinite  number 
of  other  works,  performed  by  him  in  the  course  of  his  life, 
which  lasted  eighty-four  years.  Andrea  died  in  1528,^  and 
I,  being  still  but  a  boy  and  talking  with  him,  have  heard 
him  say,  or  rather  boast,  that  he  had  been  one  of  those  who 
bore  Donato  to  his  burial-place.  I  remember,  too,  that  the 
good  old  man,  speaking  of  this  circumstance,  seemed  to  feel 
no  little  pride  in  the  share  he  had  taken  in  it.^ 

But  to  return  to  Luca,  that  master  was  buried,  with  the 

2<  The  altar-piece  for  the  Trinity  is  now  in  the  cathedral. 

This  work  still  remains. 
2«  In  1525  rather. 

^'  An  unpublished  work  of  Luca  della  Robbia,  the  marble  tabernacle  of  the 
church  of  Peretola  near  Florence,  is  described  by  E.  Molinier  in  the  (Gazette 
Archeologique  for  1884.  This  work  has  been  identified  with  the  missing 
tabernacle  executed  between  1441  and  1443  for  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Nuova. 

In  a  niche  or  tabernacolo  in  the  Via  Nazionale  is  a  terra-cotta  by  one  of  the 
Robbias.  In  cleaning  it  a  few  years  ago  a  young  man  placed  his  ladder 
against  the  head  of  one  of  the  Apostles  ,  it  broke  off  and  was  dashed  to  pieces 
on  the  pavement.    See  the  Courrier  de  VArl,  August  21,  1885. 

According  to  Mr.  J.  C.  Robinson's  Catalogue  of  Works  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum  the  municipality  of  Florence  has  prohibited  the  sale  or  de- 


174 


LUCA  BELLA  ROBBIA 


rest  of  his  family,  in  the  tomb  of  his  fathers,  which  is  in  the 
church  of  San  Pier  Maggiore,  and  after  him  Andrea  della 
Robbia  was  entombed  in  the  same  sepulchre.  The  latter 
left  two  sons,  who  became  monks  in  San  Marco,  where  they 
received  the  cowl  from  the  venerable  Fra  Girolamo  Savona- 
rola, who  was  ever  held  in  great  honour  by  the  della  Robbia 
family  ;  wherefore  it  is  that  these  artists  have  depicted  him 
in  the  manner  which  we  still  see  on  the  medallions.  Andrea 
had  three  sons  besides  the  monks  above-mentioned — Grio- 
vanni  ^  (also  an  artist,  and  who  had  three  sons,  Marco,  Lu- 
cantonio,  and  Simone,  all  of  high  promise,  but  who  died  of 
the  plague  in  1527) ;  Luca  and  Girolamo,  who  devoted 
themselves  to  sculpture.  Of  the  two  last-named,  Luca  paid 
infinite  attention  to  works  in  the  glazed  terra-cotta ;  and 
among  many  other  labours  of  his  performance  are  the  pave- 
ments of  the  papal  Loggia,  which  pope  Leo  X.  caused  to 
be  constructed  in  Rome,  under  the  direction  of  Raphael  of 
Urbino,  and  those  of  numerous  walls  and  chambers,  where- 
in Luca  represented  the  arms  and  insignia  of  that  pontiff. 
Girolamo,  who  was  the  youngest  of  all,  worked  in  marble 
and  bronze,  as  well  as  terra-cotta,  and  by  the  emulation  ex- 
isting between  himself,  Jacopo  Sansovino,  Baccio  Bandinelli, 
and  other  masters  of  his  time,  he  had  already  become  a  good 
artist,  when  he  was  induced  by  certain  Florentine  merchants 
to  visit  France.  Here  he  executed  various  works  for  king 
Francis  at  Madri,^^  a  place  not  far  distant  from  Paris,  more 
particularly  a  palace  decorated  with  numerous  figures  and 
other  ornaments,  cut  in  a  kind  of  stone  similar  to  that 
which  we  have  ourselves  at  Volterra,  but  of  a  better  quality, 
since  it  is  soft  while  being  worked,  and  becomes  indurated 
by  time  and  exposure  to  the  air.    Girolamo  della  Robbia^ 

struction  of  any  works  in  Robbia  ware  which  have  been  heretofore  visible 
from  the  street,  including  those  on  the  exteriors  of  the  houses. 

2«  Giovanni  executed  the  fountain  in  the  sacristy  of  Santa  Maria  Novella, 
certain  heads  in  the  courtyard  of  the  Belle  Arti,  and  some  angels  for  an  altar 
in  Sant'  Ambrogio. 

29  The  Chateau  de  Madrid  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne. 

»o  Girolamo  della  Robbia,  born  1488,  went  to  France  in  1537,  worked  for 


LUCA  DELLA  ROBBIA 


175 


laboured  much  in  Orleans,  and  executed  many  works  in 
various  parts  of  the  whole  realm  of  France,  acquiring  high 
reputation  and  great  riches.  But  after  a  time,  understand- 
ing that  the  only  brother  now  remaining  to  him  in  Florence 
was  Luca,  while  he  was  himself  alone  in  the  service  of  the 
French  king,  and  very  wealthy,  he  invited  his  brother  to 
join  him  in  those  parts,  hoping  to  leave  him  the  successor 
of  his  own  prosperous  condition  and  high  credit.  But  the 
matter  did  not  proceed  thus.  Luca  died  soon  after  his  arri- 
val in  France,  and  Girolamo  found  himself  once  more  alone 
and  with  none  of  his  kin  beside  him.  He  then  resolved  to 
return  to  his  native  land,  and  there  enjoy  the  riches  ac- 
quired by  his  pains  and  labours,  desiring  moreover  to  leave 
some  memorial  of  himself  in  his  own  country.  In  the  year 
1553  he  established  his  dwelling  in  Florence  accordingly,  but 
was  in  a  manner  compelled  to  change  his  purpose,  seeing  that 
duke  Cosmo,  by  whom  he  had  hoped  to  be  honourably  em- 
ployed, was  entirely  occupied  by  the  war  in  Siena  :  he  there- 
fore returned  to  die  in  France,  when  not  only  did  his  house 
remain  closed  and  his  family  become  extinct,  but  art  was  at 
the  same  time  deprived  of  the  true  method  of  working  in 
the  glazed  terra-cotta.  It  is  true  that  there  were  some  who 
made  attempts  in  this  kind  of  sculpture  after  his  decease, 
but  no  one  of  these  artists  ever  approached  the  excellence 
of  Luca  the  elder,  of  Andrea,  and  the  other  masters  of  tliat 
family  in  the  branch  of  art  of  which  we  are  now  speaking. 
Wherefore,  if  I  have  expatiated  at  some  length  on  this  sub- 
ject, or  said  more  than  may  have  seemed  needful,  let  my 
readers  excuse  me,  since  the  fact  that  Luca  invented  this 
mode  of  sculpture,  which  had  not  been  practised — so  far  as 
I  know — by  the  ancient  Romans,  rendered  it  proper,  as  I 
thought,  that  it  should  be  treated  of  at  some  length,  which 
I  have  done  accordingly.  And  if,  after  closing  the  life  of 
Luca  the  elder,  I  have  briefly  stated  other  things  relating  to 

many  years  there,  lost  his  place  through  the  envy  of  Philibert  De  I'Orme  (in 
1550)  and  returned  to  Florence.  In  1559  Priniaticcio  persuaded  him  to  go 
again  to  France,  and  he  remained  in  Paris  until  he  died  in  1560  in  the  Chateau 
de  Nesle.    See  Milanesi, 


176 


LUCA  DELLA  KOBBIA 


his  descendants,  who  have  lived  even  to  onr  own  days — this 
I  have  done  that  I  may  not  have  further  occasion  to  recur 
to  that  matter.  Luca  moreover,  be  it  observed,  though  he 
passed  from  one  occupation  to  another — from  marble  to 
bronze,  and  from  bronze  to  terra-cotta — was  not  induced  to 
these  changes  by  an  idle  levity,  or  because  he  was,  as  too 
many  are  found  to  be,  capricious,  unstable,  and  discontented 
with  his  vocation,  but  because  he  was  by  nature  disposed  to 
the  search  after  new  discoveries,  and  also  because  his  neces- 
sities compelled  him  to  seek  a  mode  of  occupation  which 
should  be  in  harmony  with  his  tastes,  while  it  was  less  fa- 
tiguing and  more  profitable.  Whence  the  arts  of  design 
and  the  world  generally  were  enriched  by  the  possession  of 
a  new,  useful,  and  beautiful  decoration — from  which,  too, 
the  master  himself  derived  perpetual  fame  and  undying 
glory.  Luca  della  Robbia  drew  well  and  gracefully,  as  may 
be  seen  by  certain  drawings  in  our  book,  the  lights  of  which 
are  in  white  lead ;  and  in  one  of  them  is  his  own  portrait, 
made  with  great  care  by  his  own  hand,  looking  at  himself  in 
a  mirror. ^1 

3»  Luca  della  Robbia's  style  is  so  sober  and  contained,  so  delicate  yet  so 
healthy,  so  lovely  yet  so  free  from  prettiness,  so  full  of  sentiment  and  de- 
void of  sentimentality,  that  it  is  hard  to  find  words  for  any  critical  character- 
ization. The  work,  exactly  suited  to  its  place,  leaves  little  to  be  said  but  that 
it  is  one  of  the  loveliest  inheritances  which  the  Renaissance  has  bequeathed  to 
us,  looking,  indeed,  says  Walter  Pater,  "as  if  a  piece  of  the  blue  sky  had  fallen 
down  into  the  streets  of  Florence  "  to  be  fixed  above  some  door  or  window. 
Here,  there  is  not  one  bit  of  the  bravura  of  Verrocchio  (in  his  Colleone)  or  of 
Pollajuolo  (in  his  Papal  monuments),  none  of  the  "  feverish  vitality  "  of  Dona- 
tello,  all  is  contained  and  measured ;  his  range  of  subject  like  the  rest,  for 
Luca  varies  the  latter  but  little,  and  sings  one  long  hymn  to  Madonna  with 
angels  for  choristers.  Walter  Pater  in  his  Renaissance  sums  up  Luca's  quali- 
ties in  the  phrase  :  "Expression  carried  to  its  highest  intensity  of  degree," 
"that  characteristic  rare  in  poetry,  rarer  still  in  art,  rarest  of  all  in  the  ab- 
stract art  of  sculpture." 

Andrea  della  Robbia,  a  little  less  measured  and  grave  than  Luca,  is  just  as 
lovely ;  somewhat  more  florid,  his  work  is  still  none  too  much  so  to  be  per- 
fectly decorative.  And  in  looking  at  his  Annunciation  of  the  Innocenti,  the 
children's  heads  in  his  altar-pieces  of  Arezzo,  above  all  at  his  lunette  over  the 
cathedral  door  at  Prato,  one  is  tempted  to  set  him  side  by  side  with  Luca,  or 
at  the  least  to  call  him  a  most  worthy  successor. 


PAOLO  UCOELLO,  FLORENTINE  PAINTERS 


AOLO  UCCELLO  would  have  proved  himself  the  most 


original  and  inventive  genius  ever  devoted  to  the  art 


of  painting,  from  the  time  of  Giotto  downwards,  had 
he  bestowed  but  half  the  labour  on  the  delineation  of  men 
and  animals  that  he  lost  and  threw  away  over  the  minutite 
of  perspective. 2  For,  although  these  studies  are  meritori- 
ous and  good  in  their  way,  yet  he  who  is  addicted  to  them 
beyond  measure,  wastes  his  time,  exhausts  his  intellect, 
and  weakens  the  force  of  his  conceptions,  insomuch  that  he 
frequently  diminishes  the  fertility  and  readiness  of  his 
resources,  which  he  renders  ineffectual  and  sterile.  Nay, 
whoever  bestows  his  attention  on  these  points,  rather  than 
on  the  delineation  of  the  living  figure,  will  frequently  de- 
rive from  his  efforts  a  dry  and  angular  hardness  of  manner, 
which  is  a  very  common  result  of  too  close  a  consideration 
of  minute  points.  There  is,  moreover,  the  highest  proba- 
bility that  one  so  disposed  will  become  unsocial,  melancholy, 
and  poor,  as  did  Paolo  Uccello,  who,  being  endowed  by  nat- 
ure with  a  subtle  and  inquiring  spirit,  knew  no  greater 
pleasure  than  that  of  undertaking  over-difficult,  or,  rather, 

*  Milanesi  proves  that  Paolo,  called  Uccello,  was  the  son  of  Dono  di  Paolo, 
a  barber-surgeon  of  Prato  Vecchio,  who  became  a  Florentine  citizen  in  1373. 
His  mother  was  Antonia  di  Giovanni  Castcllo  del  Beccuto. 

2  Uccello  was  apprenticed  to  Lorenzo  Ghihcrti  in  1407.  Perspective  was  al- 
ready a  subject  of  research,  for  at  this  time  Ghiberti  had  introduced  it  into 
bas-reliefs,  Donatello  had  made  use  of  it  in  adaptiug  his  statues  to  the  posi- 
tion they  were  to  occupy,  and  Brunelleschi  had  taught  it  to  Masaccio.  The 
works  of  Uccello  have  nearly  all  perished.  Uccello  may  very  possibly  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Vittore  Pisano.  See  Dr.  J.  P.  Richter,  Italian  Art  at  the 
National  Gallery. 


[Born  1397;  died  1475.] 


178 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


impossible  problems  of  perspective  ;  which,  although,  doubt- 
less curious,  and  perhaps  beautiful,  yet  so  effectually  im- 
peded his  progress  in  the  more  essential  study  of  the  figure, 
that  his  works  became  worse  and  worse,  in  that  respect,  the 
older  he  grew.  It  is  by  no  means  to  be  denied  that  the  man 
who  subjects  himself  to  studies  too  severe,  does  violence  to 
his  nature  ;  and,  although  he  may  sharpen  his  intellect  on 
one  point,  yet,  whatever  he  does,  wants  the  grace  and  facility 
natural  to  those  who,  proceeding  temperately,  preserve  the 
calmness  of  their  intelligence,  and  the  force  of  their  judg- 
ment, keeping  all  things  in  their  proper  place,  and  avoid- 
ing those  subtleties  which  rarely  produce  any  better  effect 
than  that  of  imparting  a  laboured,  dry,  and  ungraceful  char- 
acter to  the  production,  whatever  it  may  be,  which  is  bet- 
ter calculated  to  move  the  spectator  to  pity,  than  awaken 
his  admiration.  It  is  only  when  the  spirit  of  inspiration 
is  roused,  when  the  intellect  demands  to  be  in  action,  that 
effectual  labour  is  secured  ;  then  only  are  thoughts  worthy  of 
expression  conceived,  and  things  great,  excellent,  and  sub- 
lime accomplished. 

Paolo  Uccello  employed  himself  perpetually,  and  without 
any  intermission  whatever,  in  the  consideration  of  the  most 
difficult  questions  connected  with  art,  insomuch  that  he 
brought  the  method  of  preparing  the  plans  and  elevation  of 
buildings,  by  the  study  of  linear  perspective,  to  perfection. 
From  the  ground  plan  to  the  cornices,  and  summit  of  the  , 
roof,  he  reduced  all  to  strict  rules,  by  the  convergence  of  in- 
tersecting lines,  which  he  diminished  towards  the  centre, 
after  having  fixed  the  point  of  view  higher  or  lower,  as 
seemed  good  to  him  ;  he  laboured,  in  short,  so  earnestly  in 
these  difficult  matters,  that  he  found  means,  and  fixed  rules, 
for  making  his  figures  really  to  seem  standing  on  the  plane 
whereon  they  were  placed  ;  not  only  showing  how,  in  order 
manifestly  to  draw  back  or  retire,  they  must  gradually  be 
diminished,  but  also  giving  the  precise  manner  and  degree 
required  for  this,  which  had  previously  been  done  by  chance, 
or  effected  at  the  discretion  of  the  artist,  as  he  best  could. 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


179 


He  also  discovered  the  method  of  turning  the  arches  and 
cross-vaulting  of  ceilings  ;  taught  how  floors  are  to  be  fore- 
shortened by  the  convergence  of  the  beams ;  showed  how 
the  artist  must  proceed^  to  represent  columns  bending 
around  the  sharp  corners  of  a  building,  so  that,  when 
drawn  in  perspective,  they  efface  the  angle,  and  cause  it  to 
seem  level.  To  pore  over  all  these  matters,  Paolo  would 
remain  alone,  seeing  scarcely  any  one,  and  remaining  almost 
like  a  hermit  for  weeks  and  months  in  his  house,  without 
suffering  himself  to  be  approached.  But,  however  dif?icult 
and  beautiful  these  things  may  be,  yet,  if  he  had  expended 
the  time  given  to  them  in  the  study  of  figures,  he  would 
have  done  much  better ;  for,  altliougli  his  drawing  of  the 
latter  is  tolerably  good,  yet  it  wants  much  of  the  perfection 
which  he  might  have  given  it  by  a  more  discreetly  regulated 
attention  ;  but  by  thus  consuming  his  hours  in  pondering 
these  devices,  he  found  himself  steeped  in  poverty  all  the 
days  of  his  life,  instead  of  attaining  to  the  celebrity  which 
he  might  otherwise  have  acquired.  When,  therefore,  Paolo 
would  sometimes  exhibit  his  mazzocchi,"^  some  pointed, 
others  square,  and  all  drawn  in  perspective  under  various 
aspects,  his  spheres  having  seventy-two  facettes,  like  dia- 
mond points,  with  a  morsel  of  chip  bent  upwards  on  each 
plane,  and  all  the  other  strange  whimsies  over  which  he  ex- 
hausted his  strength,  and  wasted  his  time,  to  the  sculptor 
Donatello  (who  was  his  intimate  friend),  the  latter  would 
say  to  him,  Ah,  Paolo,  with  this  perspective  of  tliine, 
thou  art  leaving  the  substance  for  the  shadow.  These  things 
are  serviceable  to  those  only  who  work  at  inlaying  of  wood 
(tarsia),  seeing  that  it  is  their  trade  to  use  chips  and  shadings, 
with  circles  and  spirals,  and  squares,  and  such-like  matters." 

8  Orlandi — Abecedario  pittorico — mistaking  the  import  of  this  word,  sup- 
posed it  to  be  a  family  name,  and  makes  Paolo  a  member  of  the  Mazzocclii 
family.  The  word  mazzocchi  is  interpreted  to  mean  "circlets  armed  with 
points  or  spikes,  and  placed  on  the  escutcheons  of  families  ;  "  and  "  caps  of  a 
peculiar  form,  such,  for  example,  as  we  see  in  the  portraits  of  Taddeo  and 
Agnolo  Gaddi  ;  "  or,  according  to  other  authorities,  it  may  mean  the  heraldic 
"  cap  of  maintenance." — Mrs,  Foster's  Notes  to  Vasari. 


180 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


The  first  works  of  Paolo  were  fresco  paintings  for  the 
hospital  of  Lelmo/  where  he  depicted  St.  Anthony  the 
abbot,  in  an  oblong  niche,  painted  in  perspective,  with  St. 
Cosimo  on  one  side  of  St.  Anthony,  and  St.  Damiano  on 
the  other.  In  Annalena,"^  a  convent  of  nuns,  he  executed 
two  figures,  and  in  Santa  Trinita,  on  the  inside  of  the 
church,  and  over  the  north  door,  he  painted  stories  in 
fresco,  from  the  life  of  St.  Francis,^  one  showing  the  saint 
when  he  receives  the  stigmata,  a  second  where  he  restores 
the  church,  which  he  is  supporting  on  his  shoulders,  and 
the  third  representing  his  interview  with  San  Domenico. 
In  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  in  a  chapel  near 
the  side  door  which  opens  on  the  road  to  San  Giovanni,  and 
wherein  are  certain  works  by  Masaccio,  Paolo  painted  an 
Annunciation,^  also  in  fresco.  In  this  picture  he  repre- 
sented a  building,  which  is  highly  worthy  of  attention  :  it 
was  then  a  new,  and  was  considered  to  be  a  difficult  thing, 
since  it  was  the  first  edifice  depicted  in  a  good  manner,  and 
with  true  and  graceful  proportions ;  by  this  work  artists 
were  taught  that,  by  due  arrangement,  the  level  space, 
which  is  in  reality  small,  and  closely  bounded,  may  be 
made  to  appear  extensive,  and  acquire  the  semblance  of 
distance  ;  and  he  who,  after  securing  this,  shall  be  capable 
of  judiciously  distributing  his  lights  and  shadows  to  their 
proper  places,  and  of  duly  managing  the  colours,  will 
doubtless  produce  the  effect  of  a  more  complete  illusion  to 
the  eye,  cause  his  pictures  to  exhibit  higher  relief,  and  give 
them  a  more  exact  resemblance  to  life  and  reality.  Not 
satisfied  with  this,  Paolo  desired  to  prove  his  power  of  con- 
quering a  still  greater  difficulty  ;  and  drew  a  line  of  col- 
umns retiring  in  perspective,  which  he  caused  to  bend 

*  The  frescoes  are  lost ;  the  academy  is  now  built  on  the  spot  formerly  oc- 
cupied by  this  hospital  of  Lemmo,  or  Lelmo,  so  called  from  its  founder, 
Lemmo  Balducci  and  which  later  was  dedicated  to  San  Matteo. 

5  This  is  evidently  an  error,  for  the  convent  of  Annalena  was  not  founded 
until  1455.    The  frescoes  by  Uccello  have  perished. 

«  These  frescoes  are  lost. 
Both  the  works  of  Masaccio  and  Uccello  have  perished. 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


181 


round  an  angle,  so  as  to  efface  the  sharp  angles  of  the  ceil- 
ing on  which  the  four  Evangelists  are  painted  :  this  also 
was  considered  a  beautiful  and  difficult  thing ;  nor  can  it 
be  denied  that  Paolo  was  an  able  and  ingenious  artist  in 
this  department  of  his  profession. 

In  San  Miniato,  without  the  city  of  Florence,  this  master 
painted  the  lives  of  the  Holy  Fathers  ®  in  one  of  the  clois- 
ters. This  work  was  principally  in  terra  verde,  but  was 
partly  coloured  ;  and  here  Paolo  did  not  pay  sufficient  re- 
gard to  the  harmony,  which  the  artist  should  study  to  pre- 
serve in  stories  that  are  represented  with  one  colour  only, 
seeing  that  he  made  his  fields  blue,  his  cities  red,  and  the 
buildings  varied,  as  best  pleased  his  fancy,  wherein  he  com- 
mitted an  error,  for  whatever  we  feign  to  make  of  stone, 
cannot  and  ought  not  to  be  tinted  with  other  colours.  It 
is  said  that  when  Paolo  was  occupied  with  this  work,  the 
abbot,  who  then  ruled  at  San  Miniato,  gave  him  scarcely 
anything  to  eat  but  cheese,  of  which  our  painter,  who  was 
shy  and  timid,  becoming  tired,  resolved  to  go  no  more  to 
work  at  the  cloister.  The  abbot  sent  to  inquire  the  cause 
of  his  absence  ;  but  when  Paolo  lieard  the  monks  asking  for 
him,  he  would  never  be  at  home,  and  if  he  chanced  to  meet 
any  of  the  brothers  of  that  Order  in  the  streets  of  Florence, 
he  hurried  away  with  all  speed,  flying  from  tliem  as  fast  as 
he  was  able.  One  day,  two  of  the  friars,  more  curious  than 
the  rest,  and  younger  than  Paolo,  ran  after  and  overtook 
him.  They  then  inquired  why  he  did  not  come  to  finish 
the  work  he  had  commenced,  and  wherefore  he  Hod  at  the 
sight  of  one  of  their  body  ?  You  have  so  murdered  me," 
replied  Paolo,  that  I  not  only  run  away  from  you,  but 
dare  not  stop  near  the  house  of  any  joiner,  or  even  pass  by 
one,  and  all  that  is  owing  to  the  bad  management  of  your 
abbot,  for  what  with  his  cheese-pies  and  cheese-soup,  he 
has  made  me  swallow  such  a  mountain  of  cheese,  that  I  am 
all  turned  into  cheese  myself,  and  tremble  lest  the  carpen- 
ters should  take  me  to  make  their  glue  with  ;  of  a  surety  if 

These  paintings  have  been  whitewashed. 


182 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


I  stayed  with  you  any  longer,  I  should  be  no  more  Paolo, 
but  cheese."  The  monks,  departing  from  him  with  peals 
of  laughter,  told  the  story  to  their  abbot,  who  prevailed  on 
him  to  return  to  his  work,  with  the  promise  that  he  would 
order  him  dishes  not  made  of  cheese. 

In  the  church  of  the  Carmine,  Paolo  painted  the  altar  of 
SS.  Cosimo  and  Damiano,^  for  the  Pugliesi  family,  in  the 
chapel  of  San  Girolamo  ;  and  in  the  house  of  the  Medici, 
he  painted  several  pictures  on  canvas  and  in  distemper, 
representing  various  animals,  which  he  greatly  delighted  in, 
and  to  the  delineation  of  which  he  gave  his  most  unwearied 
attention.  He  had  numbers  of  painted  birds,  cats,  and 
dogs,  in  his  house,  with  every  other  animal  of  which  he 
could  get  the  portrait,  being  too  poor  to  keep  the  living 
creatures ;  and  as  he  preferred  birds  to  all  other  animals, 
he  received  the  name  of  Paul  of  the  Birds  (Paolo  Uccelli). 
Among  other  representations  of  animals  painted  for  the 
Medici,  was  a  combat  of  lions,  to  which  he  imparted  so 
much  force,  and  gave  the  expression  of  such  fierce  rage  to 
the  movements  of  the  creatures,  that  they  seemed  to  be 
alive.  But  the  most  extraordinary  part  of  all,  was  a  ser- 
pent fighting  with  a  lion  ;  the  strength  and  fierceness  of 
the  reptile  are  finely  obvious  in  his  furious  contortions,  the 
venom  darts  from  his  eyes  and  mouth.  Near  to  this  group 
is  a  peasant  girl  with  an  ox,  the  foreshortening  of  which  is 
admirable.  In  my  collection  of  drawings,  is  a  sketch  of 
this  scene  by  the  hand  of  Paolo  ;  the  girl,  full  of  terror,  is 
in  the  act  of  escaping  from  those  beasts  by  a  rapid  flight. 
The  same  picture  exhibits  certain  herdsmen  very  naturally 
pourtrayed,  with  a  landscape,  which  was  considered  an  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  thing  at  the  time.  In  other  parts  of 
this  work  are  representations  of  armed  men  on  horseback, 
many  of  whom  are  portraits  from  the  life. 

Paolo  was  afterwards  commissioned  to  paint  some  histor- 
ical pictures  in  the  cloister  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  the 

»  This  work  was  destroyed  in  the  fire  of  1771.  These  works  are  lost. 

In  1446-48 ;  mugh  that  Vasari  describes  is  lost. 


PAOLO  ITCCELLO 


183 


first  of  which  are  those  seen  on  entering  the  cloister  from 
the  church.  In  these  he  depicted  the  creation  of  animals, 
exhibiting  infinite  numbers  and  varieties  of  every  kind, 
whether  belonging  to  earth,  air,  or  water.  Paolo  Uccello 
was  exceedingly  fanciful,  and  delighted,  as  we  have  said,  in 
representing  his  animals  to  perfection.  We  have  here  an 
instance  of  this  in  some  lions  which  are  about  to  fall  on  one 
another  with  open  jaws,  and  whose  fierce  rage  is  expressed 
with  the  utmost  truth,  as  is  the  timidity  and  velocity  of  the 
stags  and  deer,  which  also  make  part  of  the  picture  ;  the 
birds  and  fish  are,  in  like  manner,  depicted  with  extraordi- 
nary exactitude  in  every  feather  and  scale.  In  the  same  place 
this  master  pourtrayed  the  creation  of  our  first  parents,  with 
their  fall.  This  is  in  a  very  good  manner  :  it  is  well  and 
carefully  executed  ;  and  in  these  pictures,  Paolo  took  pains 
to  vary  the  colouring  of  the  trees,  a  thing  which  it  was  not  yet 
usual  for  the  masters  to  accomplish  very  successfully.  With 
respect  to  the  landscapes,  in  like  manner,  Paolo  was  the 
first  among  the  old  painters  who  acquired  a  name  for  his 
labours  in  this  branch  of  art,  which  he  conducted  to  a  high- 
er degree  of  perfection  than  had  been  attained  in  it  by  the 
artists  who  preceded  him.  It  is  true  that  those  who  came 
after  him,  succeeded  much  better  than  he  had  done  ;  since, 
with  all  his  pains,  he  could  never  impart  to  his  landscapes 
that  softness  and  harmony  which  have  been  given  to  works 
of  this  class  in  our  times,  by  painting  them  in  oil.  It  was 
quite  enough  for  Paolo  if  he  drew  according  to  the  rules  of 
perspective,  representing  things  as  they  stood,  and  giving  all 
that  he  saw  :  fields,  that  is  to  say,  with  their  ditches,  tlieir 
furrows,  the  ploughs  on  them,  and  every  other  minutia  of 
tlie  kind,  in  his  own  dry  and  hard  manner  ;  whereas  if  he 
has  selected  the  most  effective  characteristics  of  things, 
and  represented  such  parts  only  as  redound  to  the  good  gen- 
eral effect  of  the  picture,  he  would  have  approached  much 
more  nearly  to  perfection.  When  he  had  completed  these 
paintings,  he  executed  others,  in  the  same  cloister,  beneatli 
two  pictures,  which  are  from  the  hand  of  a  different  mas- 


184 


PAOLO  TJCCELLO 


ter ;  and  lower  down  in  the  cloister,  he  painted  the 
deluge,  with  the  ark  of  Noah.  In  that  work  Paolo  pour- 
trayed  the  dead  bodies,  the  face  of  the  tempest  raging 
around,  the  fury  of  the  winds,  the  flashes  of  the  lightning, 
the  torrents  of  rain,  the  destruction  of  the  trees,  and  the 
terror  of  men,  with  so  much  art  and  ability,  that  no  words 
could  sufficiently  express  the  merits  of  this  work.  In  the 
background  is  a  dead  body,  of  which  a  raven  is  tearing  out 
the  eyes  ;  the  foreshortening  of  this  is  very  good  :  there  is 
also  a  boy,  whose  drowned  corpse  is  represented  as  greatly 
swollen  by  the  water.  He  has,  moreover,  given  many  elo- 
quent expressions  of  human  passion  and  feeling,  showing  the 
disregard  of  their  common  danger  from  the  rising  waters, 
of  two  men  who  are  fighting  on  horseback ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  excessive  terror  of  death  experienced  by  a 
woman  and  man,  who  are  both  mounted  on  a  buffalo,  but 
who  find  that  the  hinder  parts  of  the  animal  are  gradually 
sinking  beneath  the  water,  insomuch  that  they  lose  all  hope 
of  being  able  to  save  themselves, — a  work  which  displayed 
so  much  excellence,  that  the  master  acquired  the  highest 
reputation  from  it  :  the  whole  is  carefully  executed  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  perspective,  and  many  of  the  accessories 
are  very  beautiful.  Beneath  this  story,  Paolo  likewise  de- 
picted the  inebriation  of  Noah,  with  the  contemptuous  pro- 
ceeding of  his  son  Ham  (in  whom  he  pourtrayed  the  Floren- 
tine painter  and  sculptor  Dello,^^  who  was  his  friend),  with 
Sliem  and  Japhet,  the  other  sons  who  throw  a  vestment 
over  their  father's  prostrate  form.^^  In  the  same  picture 
is  a  cask  in  perspective,  the  curved  lines  of  which,  drawn  in 
different  directions,  were  considered  very  fine ;  there  is  also 

'2  That  is  to  say,  after  the  stories — really  by  another  hand — which  follow 
the  first  described ;  those,  that  is,  of  the  fourth  arcade. — Milanesi. 
13  The  Deluge  is  in  the  upper  part. 
1*  The  frescoes  here  described  are  the  most  injured. 
15  Dello  was  then  about  forty-two  years  of  age. 

i«  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  consider  that  the  entire  figure  of  Noah  has 
been  repainted.  The  Deluge  and  the  Noah  are  the  only  frescoes  in  the 
series  which  seem  by  their  execution  to  justify  their  attribution  to  Uccello. 


PAOLO  UOCELLO 


186 


a  long  line  of  trellis-work,  covered  with  bunches  of  grapes, 
the  rods  of  which  being  square  on  the  plane,  diminish  as 
they  approach  the  point  of  view  ;  but  the  master  committed 
an  error  in  this  matter,  since  the  floor  on  which  the  figures 
stand  diminishes  according  to  the  lines  of  the  trellis-Avork, 
but  the  cask  does  not  follow  those  receding  lines,  and  I  am 
surprised  that  an  artist  so  careful  and  exact  should  have 
committed  so  manifest  an  error.  ^"^  Paolo  further  represented 
the  Sacrifice  of  Noah  ;  and  here  he  painted  the  open  ark  in 
perspective,  with  ranges  of  perches  in  the  upper  part,  di- 
vided into  regular  rows,  for  the  birds,  of  which  various  kinds 
are  seen  to  fly  out  in  flocks.  In  the  air  above  is  the  figure 
of  God  the  Father,  who  appears  over  the  sacrifice  which 
Noah  and  his  sons  are  in  the  act  of  offering.  This  figure  is 
the  most  difficult  of  any  that  Paolo  Uccello  executed,  since 
it  is  represented  with  the  head  foreshortened,  flying  towards 
the  wall,  and  has  such  force  and  relief,  that  it  seems  to  press 
through  and  divide  it.  There  is,  besides,  a  large  number 
of  different  animals  about  the  patriarch  Noah,  all  most 
beautifully  done.  The  whole  work  is,  in  short,  so  full  of 
harmony  and  grace,  that  it  is,  without  doubt,  the  best  of 
his  labours,  nay,  beyond  comparison,  superior  to  them  all, 
insomuch  that  it  has  secured  the  liigliest  commendations 
for  the  master,  not  from  his  own  times  only,  but  from  ours 
also. 

In  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  Paolo  Uccello 
painted  a  horse  in  terra- verde ;  this  was  executed  to  the 
memory  of  Giovanni  Acuto,  an  Englishman,  and  Leader 
of  the  Florentines,  who  died  in  1393.  This  horse  is  of  ex- 
traordinary magnitude,  and  is  considered  extremely  beauti- 
ful ;  on  its  back  is  the  figure  of  the  English  commander, 
painted  from  nature,  in  chiaro-scuro.  Tlie  picture  is  ten 
braccia  in  height,  and  is  in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  walls  of 
the  church,  where  Paolo  also  drew,  in  perspective,  a  large 
sarcophagus,  supposed  to  contain  the  corpse  of  tlie  captain  : 
on  this  he  placed  the  figure  of  Acuto  in  armour,  and  on 

The  accuracy  of  these  remarks  cannot  now  be  determined. 


186 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


horseback.-^  This  work  was  then  thought,  and  continues 
to  be  considered,  one  of  great  beauty  of  its  kind  ;  and  if 
Paolo  had  not  made  the  horse  move  his  legs  on  one  side  only, 
which  horses  do  not  naturally  do,  since  they  would  fall  if 
they  did  (which  happened,  perhaps,  because  the  artist  was 
not  accustomed  to  ride,  or  to  see  so  much  of  horses  as  of 
other  animals),  the  work  would  indeed  have  been  perfect 
The  proportions  of  the  horse,  which,  as  has  been  observed, 
is  of  immense  size,  are  extremely  beautiful.  On  the  base- 
ment are  inscribed  the  following  letters  : — 

PAULI  UCCELLI  OPUS. 

At  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same  church,  he  painted,  in 
varied  colours,  the  dial-plate  which  is  over  the  principal 
door  on  the  inside  of  the  church,  with  the  four  heads,  in 
fresco,  which  decorate  the  angles.^  By  the  same  master, 
the  western  cloister,  above  the  garden  of  the  Monastery  degli 
Angeli,  is  also  painted,  in    terra-verde,"  with  a  story  from 

IS  In  1393  the  Council  of  the  Podestk  and  Commune  of  Florence  ordered 
Agnolo  di  Taddeo  Gaddi  and  Giuliano  d' Arrigo  to  design  and  paint  a  monument 
in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  for  Giovanni  L'Acuto,  otherwise  John  Hawkwood, 
an  English  captain  of  adventure  who  had  become  condottiere  for  the  Floren- 
tine Republic  and  who  has  been  called  one  of  the  earliest  strategists  of  modern 
times.  His  monument  was  decreed  in  1893,  during  his  lifetime  :  after  hia 
death  in  1394,  his  remains  were  sent  to  England  at  the  request  of  King 
Richard  II.  In  1436  the  operai  of  the  Duomo  decided  that  the  figure  of 
Hawkwood  should  be  repainted  "in  the  same  manner  and  form"  that  had 
originally  served.  Paolo  Uccello  was  commissioned  to  paint  the  fresco  ;  the 
figure  in  terra-verde  to  represent  bronze,  the  borders,  etc.,  in  grisaglio  to 
imitate  stone,  the  whole  giving  the  idea  of  a  tomb.  The  work  failed  to  satisfy 
the  02)erai^  who  ordered  Uccello  to  efface  and  then  repaint  horse  and  man. 
The  second  painting  was  apparently  satisfactory  and  the  effigy  of  Hawkwood 
which  we  see  to-day  was  transferred  to  canvas  in  1843  by  Rizzoli  and  removed 
to  the  west  wall  at  the  end  of  the  right  nave.  For  details  see  a  life  of  John 
Hawkwood  by  Mr.  John  Temple  Leader  and  Signor  Giuseppe  Marcotti,  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Leader  Scott  under  the  title  of  Sir  John  Hawkwood, 
London,  1889. 

'"This  criticism  is  unjust  in  view  of  the  modern  researches  of  Mr.  Muy- 
bridge  and  M.  Marey,  aided  by  instantaneous  photography,  upon  the  move- 
ments of  horses.  Hawkwood's  horse,  though  rather  ungraceful,  is  true  to  nat- 
ure. 

8"  The  heads  only  remain  ;  they  have  been  restored. 


F  .OLO  UCCELLO 


187 


the  life  of  St.  Benedic  the  abbot,  beneath  every  arch,  repre- 
senting all  his  most  reuxarkable  actions,  to  his  death.  There 
are  many  beautiful  pictures  in  this  work,  and  among  them 
is  one  representing  a  monastery  which  is  suddenly  destroyed 
by  the  power  of  Satan,  and  under  the  ruins  of  which  there 
is  the  body  of  a  monk  who  has  been  killed  by  the  fall  of  the 
building.  Nor  less  remarkable  is  the  expression  of  terror 
in  another  monk,  whose  vestments  gracefully  waving  as  he 
flies,  display  the  form  beneath  most  beautifully.  From 
this  painting  the  artists  of  the  period  received  a  new  idea, 
which  they  afterwards  frequently  reproduced.  The  figure 
of  St.  Benedict  is  also  very  fine,  as,  with  combined  dignity 
and  humility,  he  performs  a  miracle  in  the  presence  of  his 
monks,  by  restoring  their  dead  brother,  before  mentioned, 
to  life.  There  are,  in  brief,  many  peculiarities  throughout 
the  whole  work,  most  amply  worthy  of  consideration,  more 
especially  as  regards  the  perspective,  the  master's  knowledge 
of  which  has  been  frequently  displayed  throughout,  even  in 
his  treatment  of  the  slates  and  tiles  of  the  roof.  At  the 
death  of  St.  Benedict,  moreover,  while  the  monks  are  per- 
forming his  obsequies,  and  bewailing  their  loss,  certain  aged 
and  decrepit  persons  come  to  look  on  the  dead  body  of  the 
saint ;  these  figures  are  admirably  fine.  There  is  also  an 
old  monk  supported  on  two  crutches,  in  whose  face  there  is 
the  evidence  of  infinite  affection,  with  a  lingering  hope  that 
he  may  possibly  recover  his  health.  In  this  work  there  are 
no  landscapes,  and  not  many  buildings,  neither  is  there  so 
much  as  usual  sacrificed  to  the  conquest  of  difficulties  in 
perspective,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  good 
drawing,  and  numerous  excellencies.^^ 

Many  houses  in  Florence  possess  small  pictures  by  the 
hand  of  this  master,  which  were  painted  to  adorn  couches, 
beds,  and  other  articles  of  household  use.  In  Gualfonda, 
more  especially,  on  a  terrace  of  the  garden  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Bartolini  family,  are  four  battle-pieces,*  in 
wood,  by  his  hand ;  the  horses  and  armed  men  in  splendid 

*  On  wood.  «i  These  works  are  lost. 


188 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


vestments  of  the  fasliion  of  that  day,  are  very  beautiful, 
and  among  the  figures  are  portraits  of  Paolo  Orsino,  Otto- 
buono  da  Parma,  Luca  da  Oanale,  and  Carlo  Malatesti,  lord 
of  Rimini,  all  great  captains  of  those  times. These  pict- 
ures had  suffered  injury  in  certain  parts,  and  have  been  re- 
stored, in  our  own  day,  by  Griuliano  Bugiardini,  from  whom 
they  have  received  injury  rather  than  benefit. 

Paolo  Uccello  was  induced  by  Donato  to  visit  Padua,^ 
when  the  last-named  artist  was  working  in  that  city  ;  he 
then  painted  certain  gigantic  figures  in  terra- verde,'' for 
the  entrance  to  the  house  of  the  Vitali  family  ;  ^  and  these, 
as  I  find  in  a  Latin  letter  written  by  Girolamo  Campagnolo 
to  the  philosopher  Leonico  Tomeo,  are  so  admirably  done, 
that  Andrea  Mantegna  is  said  to  have  held  them  in  the 
highest  estimation.  Paolo  also  decorated  the  arch  of  the 
Peruzzi  with  triangles  in  fresco,  painting  rectangular  sec- 
tions, moreover,  in  the  corners,  within  each  of  which  he 
placed  one  of  the  four  elements,  accompanied  by  an  appro- 
priate animal.  To  the  earth,  for  example,  he  gave  a  mole, 
to  the  water  a  fish,  to  the  fire  a  salamander,  and  to  the  air 
a  chameleon,  which  lives  on  the  air,  and  can  take  every 
colour.  But  as  he  had  never  seen  a  chameleon,  he  painted 
a  camel,  which  he  has  made  with  wide  open  mouth,  swal- 
lowing the  air,  wherewith  he  fills  his  belly.^^  And  herein 
was  his  simplicity  certainly  very  great :  taking  the  mere  re- 
semblance of  the  camel's  name  as  a  sufficient  representation 
of,  or  allusion  to,  an  animal  which  is  like  a  little  dry  lizard, 

22  One  of  the  battle-pieces  is  in  the  Uffizi  ;  the  collection  of  drawings  in  the 
same  museum  contains  a  study  for  a  cavalier.  Of  the  other  panels  two  are  in  the 
Louvre,  while  the  third,  the  battle  of  Sant'  Egidio,  is  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London.  All  the  panels  have  suffered  from  the  restorations  of  Bugiardini  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  See  Mr.  Cosmo  Monkhouse,  Magazine  of  Art,  X.  144, 
for  certain  doubts  as  to  whether  the  National  Gallery  picture  is  really  the 
battle  of  Sant'  Egidio  from  the  series  mentioned  above. 

23  This  is  doubtful,  though  at  some  period  of  his  life  he  probably  visited 
Padua  and  executed  the  works  mentioned  by  Vasari.  See  the  Aiionimo  of 
Morelli,  page  23.    He  worked  also  in  Urbino.    See  Milanesi. 

S4  For  Vitali  read  Vitaliani. 
Thesfi  works  are  lost. 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


189 


while  the  camel  is  a  great  ungainly  beast.  The  labours  of 
Paolo,  in  painting,  must  have  been  very  heavy,  since  he 
made  so  many  drawings,  that  he  left  whole  chests  full  of 
them  to  his  relations,  as  I  have  learned  from  themselves. 
But,  although  it  is  a  great  thing  to  produce  many  sketches, 
it  is  a  still  greater  to  execute  the  works  themselves  in  an 
effectual  manner  ;  for  the  finished  picture  possesses  a  more 
decided  vitality  than  the  mere  sketch.  In  our  collection  of 
drawings  we  have  many  figures,  studies  in  perspective,  birds, 
and  other  animals,  beautiful  to  a  marvel,  but  the  best  of  all 
is  a  kind  of  head-dress,  ('^^  mazzocchio  "  drawn  in  out- 
line only,  but  so  admirably  done,  that  nothing  short  of  the 
patience  of  Paolo  could  have  accomplished  the  task.  This 
master  was  a  person  of  eccentric  character,  and  peculiar 
habits  ;  but  he  was  a  great  lover  of  ability  in  those  of  his 
own  art ;  and,  to  the  end  that  their  memory  should  remain 
to  posterity,  he  drew,  with  his  own  hand,  on  an  oblong  pict- 
ure, the  portraits  of  five  distinguished  men,  which  he  kept 
in  his  house  as  a  memorial  of  them.  The  first  of  these  por- 
traits was  that  of  the  painter  Giotto,  as  one  who  had  given 
light  and  new  life  to  the  art ;  the  second  was  Filippo  di  Ser 
Brunellesco,  for  architecture  ;  the  third  was  Donatello,  for 
sculpture  ;  the  fourth  was  himself,  for  perspective  and  ani- 
mals ;  the  fifth  was  his  friend  Giovanni  Manetti,  for  the 
mathematics.  With  this  philosopher  Paolo  conferred  very 
frequently,  and  held  continual  discourse  with  him  concern- 
ing the  problems  of  Euclid.^ 

It  is  related  of  this  master  that  being  commissioned  to 
paint  St.  Thomas  seeking  the  wound  in  the  side  of  Christ, 
above  the  door  of  the  church  dedicated  to  that  saint,  in  the 

««  Varchi,  in  his  Storia,  lib.  IX.,  describes  the  mazzocchio  in  the  following 
words  : — "  The  mazzocchio  is  a  circlet  of  wood  covered  with  cloth,  which  sur- 
rounds and  binds  the  upper  part  of  the  head ;  it  has  a  lining  within  it,  and 
this  being  brought  down  in  front  and  thrown  back,  then  covers  the  whole 
head."    See  Milanesi. 

In  the  first  edition  of  Vasari  this  work  was  attributed  to  Masaccio.  It  is 
now  in  the  Louvre.  Antonio  (not  Giovanni)  Manetti  is  the  subject  of  the 
liiith  portrait. 


190 


PAOLO  tJCCELLO 


Mercato  Vecchio,  he  declared  that  he  would  make  known  in 
that  work  the  extent  of  what  he  had  acquired  and  was  capa- 
ble of  producing,  to  which  end  he  bestowed  upon  it  the 
utmost  care  and  consideration  :  he  also  caused  an  enclosure 
of  planks  to  be  constructed  around  it,  that  none  might  see 
the  work  until  it  should  be  entirely  completed.  One  day 
Donate  met  him  all  alone,  and  asked  him  ^'  what  kind  of  a 
work  is  this  of  thine  that  thou  art  shutting  up  so  closely  ? 
To  whom  Paolo,  answering,  replied — "  Thou  shalt  see  it 
some  day,  let  that  suffice  thee/^  Donato  would  not  press 
him  to  say  more,  thinking  that  when  the  time  came  he 
should,  as  usual,  behold  some  miracle.  It  chanced  that 
Donato  was  in  the  Mercato  Vecchio  buying  fruit  one  morn- 
ing, when  he  saw  Paolo  Uccello,  who  was  uncovering  his 
picture.  Saluting  him  courteously,  therefore,  his  opinion 
was  instantly  demanded  by  Paolo,  who  was  anxiously  curi- 
ous to  know  what  he  would  say  of  the  work.  But  when 
Donato  had  examined  the  painting  very  minutely,  he  turned 
to  Paolo  and  said,  Why,  Paolo  !  thou  art  uncovering  thy 
picture  just  at  the  very  time  when  thou  shouldst  be  shutting 
it  up  from  the  sight  of  all  ! "  These  words  so  grievously 
afflicted  the  painter,^  that  perceiving  himself  likely  to  incur 
derision  instead  of  the  glory  that  he  had  hoped  for  from 
this,  his  last  labour,  and  not  having  the  courage  to  show 
himself  fallen,  as  he  felt  himself  to  be,  he  would  no  more 
leave  his  house,  but  shut  himself  up,  devoting  himself 
wholly  to  the  study  of  perspective,  which  kept  him  in  pov- 
erty and  depression  to  the  day  of  his  death. ^  He  lived  to 
become  very  old,  but  had  secured  little  enjoyment  for  his 
old  age,  and  died  in  the  year  1432,^  in  his  eighty-third 

38  This  story  is  probably  false  or  grossly  exaggerated.  The  picture  has  dis- 
appeared. 

Uccello  made  a  will  in  1425,  and  in  1435  he  owned  a  house  in  the  Via 
della  Scala  worth  100  florins,  so  that  Vasari's  statements  regarding  his  pov- 
erty are  hardly  borne  out  by  the  facts.  See  Gaye's  Carteggio  I.,  146-147,  for 
the  original  records  ;  the  same  author  publishes  Uccello's  income  tax  papers. 

30  1432  is  evidently  a  misprint.  The  statements  of  the  tax  records  give 
various  dates  as  that  of  his  birth,  but  the  three  earliest  records  agree  in  nam- 


PAOLO  UCCELLO 


191 


year,  when  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Novella. 

Paolo  Uccello  left  a  daughter,^  who  had  some  ability  in 
design,  and  a  wife,  who  was  wont  to  relate  that  Paolo  would 
stand  the  whole  night  through,  beside  his  writing-table, 
seeking  new  terms  for  the  expression  of  his  rules  in  perspec- 
tive ;  and  when  entreated  by  herself  to  take  rest  and  sleep, 
he  would  reply,  Oh,  what  a  delightful  thing  is  this  per- 
spective !  "  And  it  is  doubtless  true,  that  as  this  study  was 
delightful  to  him,  no  less  valuable  and  useful  has  it  been 
rendered,  by  his  means,  to  those  who  have  occupied  them- 
selves with  similar  studies  in  after  times.^ 

ing  1397  as  the  year.  He  died  Dec.  11,  1475,  and  was  buried  in  the  chnrch  of 
Santo  Spirito. 

^1  Named  Antonia.  She  became  a  Carmelite  nun,  died  in  1491,  and  in  the 
mortuary  books  of  Florence  is  called  pittoressa,  paintress, 

32  In  the  history  of  art  Paolo  Uccello's  name  suggests  before  everything  else 
the  study  of  perspective,  not  the  atmospheric  perspective  of  Masaccio,  but 
linear  perspective  executed  in  the  hard,  dry  manner  which  shows  the  hand 
of  the  goldsmith.  His  battle-pieces  are  stiff,  ungainly  performances,  and  his 
Hawkwood  has  a  certain  solemnity  and  dignity  enhanced  by  its  great  size  ; 
the  most  interesting  of  his  works  is  the  fresco  of  the  Deluge  in  the  Chiostro 
Verde  of  S.  M.  Novella.  It  is  at  once  lively  in  its  expression,  and  dignified 
by  its  close  and  careful  drawing.  Paolo  belongs  to  the  group  of  painters  who 
were  wholly  naturalistic  and  whose  entire  lives  were  a  struggle  with  some  scien- 
tific problem  relating  to  the  correct  presentation  of  nature  upon  a  flat  surface. 
We  remember  him  rather  for  what  he  strove  to  attain  than  for  what  he  ac- 
tually accomplished,  but  he  deserves  a  high  place  in  the  history  of  art-evolu- 
tion. It  was  the  unflinching  resolve  and  single-hearted  devotion  to  nature 
of  such  men  as  Paolo  Uccello  that  made  an  end  of  the  degenerate  followers 
of  the  Oiotteschi  and  putting  nerve  and  muscle  into  Florentine  art  enabled 
later  painters  to  proceed  from  a  basis  of  exact  science  to  the  pursuit  of  the 
higher  ideal  of  beauty. 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI,  FLORENTINE  SCULPTORS 


[Born  1378;  died  1455.] 


Bibliography. — The  following  works  can  be  consulted  regarding  Ghiberti : 
C.  C.  Perkins,  Ghiberti  et  son  Ecole,  Paris,  1886.  A.  Rosenberg  in  the  Dohme 
series  of  Kunst  und  Kunstler,  Leipsic,  1877.  Eug.  Miintz,  Les  Primitifs, 
Paris,  1889.  C.  Frey,  Sammlung  ausgewcehlter  Biographien  Vasar'ts,  Berlin, 
188G.  Eug.  Miintz,  Les  Precurseurs  de  la  Renaissance,  Paris,  1882.  Perkins, 
Tuscan  Sculptors,  London,  1864.  Cicognara,  Storia  dclla  Scultura,  Venice, 
1813-1818.  Semper's  Z>o/iaie?Zo,  Vienna,  1875,  contains  a  chapter  on  the  com- 
petition for  the  Baptistery  gates.    Lasinio's  Engravings,  Florence,  1821. 


HOEVER  obtains  renown  among  his  fellow-men  for 


the  possession  of  any  particular  gift,  is  without  doubt 


for  the  most  part  a  truly  blessed  light  and  ex- 
emplar to  many,  whether  of  his  contemporaries  or  of  those 
who  come  after  him,  to  say  nothing  of  the  great  honours 
and  large  rewards  derived  from  this  advantage  by  himself 
in  his  own  life-time.  This  may  be  remarked  in  all  cities 
and  countries.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  by  which  the  minds 
of  men  are  more  readily  aroused  to  effort,  or  by  which  the 
discipline  of  study  is  rendered  less  onerous  to  them,  than 
the  honours  and  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  heavy 
labours  of  the  artist  or  man  of  learning.  By  these  it  is 
that  every  undertaking,  however  difficult,  is  rendered  easy, 
and  at  no  time  will  the  powers  of  the  labourer  be  put  forth 
so  effectually  and  with  so  rich  and  mature  a  fruit  as  when 
he  is  stimulated  to  effort  by  the  praises  of  the  world.  There 
are  infinite  numbers  of  men  who  seeing  and  feeling  this, 
subject  themselves  to  many  a  pain,  that  they  also  may  at- 
tain to  the  distinction,  and  merit  the  rewards  conferred 


1  In  the  first  edition  Vasari  calls  Ghiberti  in  his  heading  the  "painter." 
In  his  Commentario  Ghiberti  speaks  of  being  "inclined  towards  painting." 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


193 


upon  some  one  of  their  compatriots ;  therefore  it  was  that 
in  ancient  times  men  of  parts  and  distinction  were  rewarded 
with  riches,  or  honoured  by  triumphs  and  statues.  But  as 
it  rarely  happens  that  talent  can  escape  the  persecutions  of 
envy,  it  is  most  needful  that  all  should  strive,  so  far  as  in 
them  lies,  to  ward  off  her  attacks  by  the  truest  excellence,  or 
should  at  least  arm  themselves  with  strength  and  resolution 
to  sustain  the  impetus  of  her  onset ;  as  was  admirably  ac- 
complished by  Lorenzo  di  Clone  G-hiberti,  otherwise  di 
Bartoluccio,  who  was  well  aided  in  the  struggle  by  his  own 
merits,  as  well  as  by  the  favour  of  fortune.  It  was  the  high 
desert  of  Lorenzo  which  induced  the  sculptor  Donato,  and 
Filippo  Brunelleschi,  the  architect  and  sculptor,  both  dis- 
tinguished men,  to  place  that  youth  before  themselves,  and 
to  acknowledge,  as  they  did, — although  self-love  might 
tempt  them  to  affirm  the  contrary, — that  he  was  indeed  a 
better  master  than  they  in  the  art  that  was  in  question,  on 
the  occasion  to  which  we  allude,  namely,  that  of  casting  in 
bronze.  This  act,  in  truth,  redounded  to  the  glory  of  those 
two  artists,  as  well  as  to  the  confusion  of  many,  who,  pre- 
suming on  their  own  abilities,  press  themselves  forward  and 
occupy  the  place  due  to  talents  of  others,  although  they  are 
unable  to  produce  any  good  fruits  :  and  after  labouring  a 
thousand  years  to  effect  nothing,  do  but  oppress  the  efforts 
and  hinder  the  advancement  of  those  who  might  promote 
the  progress  of  art  and  knowledge,  but  for  their  envy  and 
malignity. 

Lorenzo  was  the  son  of  Bartoluccio  Ghiberti,^  and  in  his 
early  youth  acquired  the  art  of  the  goldsmith,  under  the 

2  Lorenzo  was  son  of  Cione  di  Ser  Bonaccorso,  and  of  Madonna  Fiore,  who 
after  the  death  of  Cione  married  that  Bartolo  di  Michele,  who  seems  to  have 
been  so  good  a  step-father  to  Lorenzo,  and  whose  portrait  Ghiberti  has 
placed  upon  the  second  gate  of  the  Baptistery.  He  called  himself  Lorenzo  di 
Bartoluccio  until  late  in  life,  but  it  having  been  suggested  that  he  was 
not  really  the  son  of  Cione,  Lorenzo  in  the  year  1443  publicly  defended  and 
cleared  himself  from  the  imputation  of  illegitimacy.  After  that  year  he  went 
always  by  his  real  name  of  Lorenzo  di  Cione.  See  Milanesi,  Baldinucci,  and 
Gaye. 

13 


194 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


care  of  liis  father,  who  was  an  excellent  master,  and  in- 
structed him  in  such  sort  that  Lorenzo,  aided  by  his  natural 
abilities,  became  a  better  goldsmith  than  his  teacher.  But 
delighting  still  more  in  the  arts  of  design  and  sculpture,^  he 
sometimes  worked  in  colours,  and  at  other  times  employed 
himself  in  the  casting  of  small  figures  in  bronze,  which  he 
finished  very  gracefully.  He  also  took  much  pleasure  in 
imitating  the  dies  of  ancient  coins  and  medals,  besides 
which  he  frequently  took  the  portraits  of  his  different  friends 
from  the  life. 

Whilst  Lorenzo  was  thus  labouring  to  acquire  the  art  of 
gold- working  with  Bartoluccio,  the  plague,  by  which  Flor- 
ence was  visited  in  the  year  1400,  broke  out,  as  he  relates 
himself  in  a  book  written  with  his  own  hand,  wherein  he 
discourses  of  matters  touching  the  arts,''  and  which  is  now  in 
the  possession  of  the  venerable  Messer  Cosimo  Bartoli,  a 
Florentine  gentleman.  To  this  plague  were  added  civil  dis- 
cords and  various  troubles  in  the  city,  from  which  Lorenzo 
was  compelled  to  depart,  when  he  repaired  to  Komagna,  in 
company  with  another  painter,  where  they  worked  together 
in  Rimini,  painting  a  chamber  and  other  works  for  signor 
Pandolfo  Malatesti,  which  were  all  completed  by  them  with 
great  diligence  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  that  noble,  who, 
although  young,  took  much  pleasure  in  all  things  relating 
to  art.    Lorenzo  meanwhile  did  not  remit  the  prosecution 

3  Stamina  is  named  by  Baldinucci  as  Lorenzo's  master. 

*  Perkins  cites  Ghiberti's  treatise  on  architecture  and  its  ' '  false  ostentation, 
almost  Vitruvian,"  as  proof  of  his  defective  education.  The  MS.  which  re- 
mains of  Ghiberti's  commentary  is  a  copy  made  in  the  fifteenth  century  prob- 
ably from  Ghiberti's  original,  and  is  now  in  the  Magliabecchian  Library  of 
Florence.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first  part  treats  of  the  ancient 
artists  and  is  in  the  main  taken  from  Pliny  ;  the  second  is  devoted  to  the 
artists  of  the  fourteenth  century ;  the  third  part  is  a  treatise  on  architecture, 
proportion,  etc.  Cicognara,  Milanesi  and  Herr  Frey  have  published  copi- 
ous extracts  from  the  commentaries,  and  Perkins  in  his  "  Ghiberti  et  son 
Ecole  "  has  translated  long  passages  into  French.  The  above  manuscript 
and  a  second  manuscript  of  the  same  commentaries  in  the  Magliahecchiana 
belonged  to  Cosimo  Bartoli,  and  from  the  great  number  of  sketches  by  vari- 
ous artists  which  it  contains,  appears  to  be  a  collection  of  studies  made  by 
(ghiberti  and  his  descendants.    See  Milanesi,  II.  247. 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


195 


of  his  studies  in  relation  to  design,  but  frequently  executed 
rilievi  in  wax,  stucco,  and  other  materials  of  similar  kind, 
well  knowing  that  such  rilievi  are  the  drawing-exercises  of 
sculptors,  without  practice  in  which  they  cannot  hope  to 
bring  any  great  work  to  perfection.  But  Lorenzo  did  not 
long  remain  absent  from  his  country.  After  the  pestilence 
had  ceased,  the  Signoria  of  Florence  and  the  Guild  of  the 
Merchants  resolved  to  proceed  with  the  two  doors  of  San  ^ 
Giovanni,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  important  churches  in 
the  city,  concerning  which  there  had  already  been  so  much 
discourse  and  so  many  deliberations.  The  time  was  favour- 
able for  such  an  undertaking,  the  art  of  sculpture  then  pos- 
sessing able  masters  in  abundance,  foreigners  as  well  as 
Florentines  :  those  in  authority  therefore,  considering  that 
the  work  ought  to  be  done  as  well  as  talked  of,  gave  orders 
that  all  the  artists,  masters  of  eminence  throughout  Italy, 
should  be  given  to  understand  that  they  might  repair  to 
Florence,  there  to  present  a  specimen  of  their  abilities  in  a 
trial  of  skill,  which  was  to  be  made  by  the  composition  and 
execution  of  an  historical  representation  in  bronze,  similar 
to  those  which  Andrea  Pisano  had  executed  for  the  first 
door. 

Notice  of  this  determination  was  sent  by  Bartoluccio  to 
Lorenzo,  who  was  then  working  in  Pesaro,  and  whom  his 
father-in-law  urged  to  return  to  Florence,  and  show  what  lie 
could  do  ;  saying,  that  this  was  an  opportunity  for  making 
himself  known  and  displaying  his  abilities,  reminding  liim 
also  that  from  the  occasion  now  presenting  itself,  they  might 
derive  such  advantages  that  neither  one  nor  the  other  of 
them  need  any  longer  work  o^t  pear-making.^  The  words  of 
Bartoluccio  roused  the  spirit  of  Lorenzo  in  such  a  manner, 
that  although  the  Signer  Pandolfo,  the  other  painter,  and 
all  the  court,  were  treating  him  with  the  most  amicable  dis- 
tinction, and  entreated  him  to  remain  with  them,  he  never- 
theless took  leave  of  that  noble  and  of  the  painter,  who 
were  with  difficulty  persuaded  to  let  him  depart,  and  saw 

*  These  Pears  (^Pere)  were  the  pear-shaped  ear-rings  of  the  Florentines. 


196 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


him  go  with  extreme  regret  ;  but  no  promises  nor  increase  of 
appointments  availed  to  detain  him,  every  minute  then 
seeming  to  Lorenzo  a  thousand  years,  until  he  found  him- 
self on  the  road  to  Florence.  Departing  from  Pesaro,  there- 
fore, he  arrived  safely  in  his  native  city.  A  great  concourse 
of  foreign  artists  had  by  this  time  assembled  at  Florence, 
and  had  presented  themselves  to  the  syndics  or  consuls  of 
the  Guild,  who  chose  seven  masters  from  the  whole  number  : 
three  of  these  were  Florentines,  the  remaining  four  were 
Tuscans.  Each  of  these  artists  received  a  sum  of  money, 
and  it  was  commanded  that  within  a  year  each  should  pro- 
duce a  story  in  bronze  as  a  specimen  of  his  powers,  all  to  be 
of  the  same  size,  which  was  that  of  one  of  the  compartments 
in  the  first  door.  The  subject  was  chosen  by  the  consuls, 
and  was  the  Sacrifice  of  Isaac  by  his  father  Abraham,  that 
being  selected  as  presenting  sufficient  opportunity  for  the 
artists  to  display  their  mastery  over  the  difficulties  of  their 
art :  this  story  comprising  landscape,  with  human  figures, 
nude  and  clothed,  as  well  as  those  of  animals  ;  the  foremost 
of  these  figures  were  to  be  in  full-relief,  the  second  in  half- 
relief,  and  the  third  in  low-relief.  The  candidates  for  this 
work  were  Filippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco,  Donate^  and  Lorenzo 
di  Bartoluccio,  who  were  Florentines,  with  Jacopo  della 
Querela,  of  Siena;  Niccolo  d^Arezzo,  his  disciple  ;  Francesco 
di  Valdambrina,  and  Simone  da  Colle,  called  Simon  of  the 
Bronzes."^  All  these  masters  made  promise  before  the  con- 
suls that  they  would  deliver  each  his  specimen  completed  at 
the  prescribed  time,  and  all  set  themselves  to  the  work  with 
the  utmost  care  and  study,  putting  forth  all  their  strength, 
and  calling  all  their  knowledge  to  aid,  in  the  hope  of  sur- 
passing one  another.  They  kept  their  labours  meanwhile 
entirely  secret,  one  from  the  other,  that  they  might  not 
copy  each  other^s  plans.    Lorenzo  alone,  who  had  Bartoluc- 

«  The  competition  was  held  in  1401. 
Another  competitor  mentioned  in  Ghiberti's  commentary  is  Niccolo  Lam- 
berti  of  Arezzo  ;  the  one  named  by  Vasari  is,  according  to  Milanesi,  Niccolo 
Spinelli,  also  an  Aretine.    Perkins  (see  Ohiberti  et  sou  Ecole,  p.  9)  doub^^ 
whether  many  foreigners  took  part  in  the  competition, 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


197 


cio  to  guide  him,  which  last  suffered  him  to  shrink  before 
no  amount  of  labour,  but  compelled  him  to  make  various 
models  before  he  resolved  on  adopting  any  one  of  them — 
Lorenzo  only,  I  say,  permitted  all  the  citizens  to  see  his 
work,  inviting  them,  or  any  stranger  who  might  be  passing 
and  had  acquaintance  with  the  art,  to  say  what  they  thought 
on  the  subject ;  and  these  various  opinions  were  so  useful  to 
the  artist,  that  he  produced  a  model,  which  was  admirably 
executed  and  without  any  defect  whatever.  He  then  made 
the  ultimate  preparations,  cast  the  work  in  bronze,  and 
found  it  succeed  to  admiration  ;  when  Lorenzo,  assisted  by 
Bartoluccio  his  father,  completed  and  polished  the  whole 
with  such  love  and  patience,  that  no  work  could  be  executed 
with  more  care,  or  finished  with  greater  delicacy.  When 
the  time  arrived  for  comparing  the  different  works,  Lorenzo's 
specimen,  with  those  of  all  the  other  masters,  were  found  to 
be  completed,  and  were  given  to  the  Guild  of  the  Merchants 
for  their  judgment.  Wherefore,  all  having  been  examined 
by  the  syndics,  and  by  many  other  citizens,  there  were  vari- 
ous opinions  among  them  touching  the  matter.  Many  for- 
eigners had  assembled  in  Florence — some  painters,  some 
sculptors,  others  goldsmiths  :  these  were  all  invited  by  the 
consuls,  or  syndics,  to  give  judgment  on  those  works,  to- 
gether with  the  men  of  the  same  calling  who  dwelt  in  Flor- 
ence. The  number  of  these  persons  was  thirty-four,  all  well 
experienced  in  their  several  arts.  But  altliough  there  were 
divers  opinions  among  them  touching  various  points,  and 
one  preferred  the  manner  of  this  candidate  and  one  of  tliat, 
yet  tliey  all  agreed  that  Filippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco  and  Lo- 
renzo di  Bartoluccio  had  presented  works  of  better  compo- 
sition, more  richly  adorned  with  figures,  and  more  delicately 
finished^  than  was  that  of  Donato,  although  in  his  speci- 
men also  the  design  was  exceedingly  good.^    In  the  work  of 

8  Milanesi  points  out  the  fact  that  Ghiberti's  relief  was  cast  in  one  piece, 
while  the  other  shown  by  Brunelleschi  was  in  several  pieces.  These  two  re- 
liefs, ordered  in  1401,  finished  probably  in  1402,  are  now  in  the  Bargello,  or 
National  Museum  of  Florence. 

*  It  is  unlikely  that  Donatello  competed,  as  he  was  only  seventeen  years  old, 


198 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


Jacopo  della  Querela  the  figures  were  carefully  designed,  but 
wanted  delicacy  of  finish.  In  the  specimen  of  Francesco 
da  Valdambrina  the  heads  were  beautiful  and  the  work  well 
finished,  but  the  composition  was  confused.  That  of  Simon 
da  Colle  was  a  beautiful  specimen  of  casting,  because  that 
was  his  peculiar  branch  of  art,  but  the  design  was  not  good. 
The  specimen  presented  by  Niccolo  d'Arezzo  showed  the 
hand  of  the  practised  master,  but  the  figures  were  stunted 
and  the  work  not  well  finished.  The  story  executed  by 
Lorenzo  only,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Hall  of  Audi- 
ence, belonging  to  the  Guild  of  the  Merchants,  was  perfect 
in  all  its  parts.  The  whole  work  was  admirably  designed 
and  very  finely  composed  :  the  figures  graceful,  elegant,  and 
in  beautiful  attitudes ;  and  all  was  finished  with  so  much 
care  and  to  such  perfection,  that  the  work  seemed  not 
to  have  been  cast  and  polished  with  instruments  of  iron, 
but  looked  rather  as  though  it  had  been  blown  with  the 
breath. 

When  Donate  and  Filippo  saw  the  care  and  success  with 
which  Lorenzo  had  completed  his  specimen,  they  drew  aside 
together,  and,  conferring  with  each  other,  decided  that  the 
work  ought  to  be  given  to  him,  because  it  appeared  to  them 
that  the  public  advantage,  as  well  as  individual  benefit, 
would  be  thus  best  secured  and  promoted,  since  Lorenzo 
being  very  young — for  he  had  not  completed  his  twentieth 
year — would  have  the  opportunity,  while  exercising  his 
talents  on  that  magnificent  work,  of  producing  those  noble 
fruits  of  which  his  beautiful  story  gave  so  fair  a  hope. 
They  declared  that,  according  to  their  judgment,  Lorenzo 
had  executed  his  specimen  more  perfectly  than  any  of  the 
other  artists,  and  that  it  would  be  a  more  obvious  proof  of 
envy  to  deprive  him  of  it,  than  of  rectitude  to  accord  it  to 
him. 

but  he  did  assist  in  the  execution  of  the  second  gate.  Milanesi  thinks  that 
the  design  for  a  panel,  which,  according  to  Vasari,  Donatello  offered  in  com- 
petition for  the  Baptistery  gates,  was  in  reality  a  design  made  much  later 
for  the  sacristy  doors  of  the  Duomo — doors  which  were  ordered  of  him  in 
1436,  but  were  never  completed.    See  Milanesi,  II.  22G,  note  2. 


LORENZO  GIIIBERTI 


199 


Lorenzo  therefore  commenced  the  works  for  tliose  doors, 
beginning  with  that  which  is  opposite  to  the  house  of  the 
wardens,  and  first  he  prepared  a  model,  in  wood,  of  the  ex- 
act size  which  each  compartment  was  to  have  in  the  metal, 
with  the  framework  and  the  ornaments  of  the  angles,  on 
each  of  which  was  placed  a  head  ;  and  all  the  decorations 
by  which  the  stories  of  every  compartment  were  to  be  sur- 
rounded. After  having  prepared  and  dried  the  mould  with 
infinite  care  and  exactitude  in  a  workshop  that  he  had  pro- 
cured opposite  to  Santa  Maria  Nuova,^^  where  the  Weavers' 
Hospital  now  stands,  and  which  was  called  the  threshing- 
fioor,  he  built  an  immense  furnace,  which  I  well  remember 
to  have  seen,  and  there  cast  the  portion  he  had  prepared,  in 
metal.  But  it  pleased  the  fates  that  this  should  not  suc- 
ceed ;  yet  Lorenzo,  preceiving  in  what  point  he  had  failed, 
did  not  lose  courage,  nor  permit  himself  to  despond  ;  but 
having  promptly  prepared  another  mould,  witliout  making 
the  occurrence  known  to  any  one,  he  cast  the  piece  again, 
when  it  succeeded  perfectly.  In  this  manner  the  artist  con- 
tinued the  whole  work,  casting  each  story  himself  ;  and 
when  he  had  completed  and  polished  it,  he  fixed  it  in  its 
place.  The  arrangement  of  the  stories  is  similar  to  that 
adopted  by  Andrea  Pisano  in  constructing  the  first  door, 
which  had  been  designed  for  him  by  Giotto.  The  number 
of  them  is  twenty  ;  the  subjects  being  taken  from  the  New 
Testament :  beneath  these  stories,  in  eight  simihir  compart- 
ments, are  figures  of  the  four  Evangelists,  two  on  each  leaf 
or  fold  of  the  door,  with  the  four  Doctors  of  the  Church  in 
like  manner.  All  these  figures  are  varied  in  their  attitudes, 
vestments,  and  other  particulars  :  one  is  reading,  another 
writing;  some  are  in  deep  meditation,  and  dilfering  thus 
one  from  another,  all,  whether  acting  or  reflecting,  are 
equally  lifelike.    The  framework  which  encloses  each  pict- 

This  same  house  in  the  Via  Bufalini  bears  a  tablet  stating  that  the  doors 
of  the  baptistery  were  cast  there.  In  reality  Ghiberti  bought  the  house  in 
1450,  when  only  the  jambs  of  the  door  remained  to  be  done.  In  1498  Perugino 
occupied  it. 


200 


LORENZO  OHIBEKTl 


ure  is  enriched  with  ornaments  of  ivy  leaves  and  foliage  of 
other  kinds,  with  mouldings  between  them,  and  on  eacli 
angle  is  a  male  or  female  head  in  full  relief,  purporting  to 
represent  the  Prophets  and  Sibyls.  They  are  very  beautiful, 
and  their  variety  serves  to  prove  the  fertility  of  invention 
possessed  by  the  master.  Above  the  Doctors  and  Evangel- 
ists here  described,  and  on  the  side  towards  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore,  is  the  first,  or  commencing  story,  which  represents 
the  Annunciation  of  Our  Lady  :  Lorenzo  has  given  to  the 
Virgin  an  expression  of  terror  and  sudden  alarm  ;  as  the 
angel  appears,  she  turns  from  him  in  an  attitude  of  infinite 
grace.  Beside  this  representation  is  one  exhibiting  the 
Birth  of  Christ ;  where  Our  Lady  is  reposing  in  a  recum- 
bent position,  with  Joseph,  earnestly  regarding  the  shep- 
herds, and  angels,  who  are  singing.  On  the  opposite  fold 
of  the  door,  and  at  the  same  height  with  the  last  mentioned 
compartment,  is  one  presenting  a  continuation  of  the  story, 
and  exhibiting  the  arrival  of  the  Magi,  with  their  adoration 
of  Christ,  to  whom  they  offer  tribute  ;  their  court  and  ser- 
vants are  also  shown  following  them,  with  horses  and  other 
accessories,  all  displaying  infinite  ability.  Next  to  this  is 
Christ  disputing  with  the  Doctors  in  the  Temple ;  and  here 
the  admiring  attention  with  which  the  doctors  are  listening 
to  Christ  is  very  finely  expressed,  as  is  the  joy  of  Mary  and 
Joseph  at  finding  him.  Above  these  there  follows  (to  com- 
mence with  that  over  the  Annunciation),  the  Baptism  of 
Christ,  by  John,  in  the  river  Jordan ;  and  here  the  rever- 
ence of  the  one  is  as  clearly  expressed  as  is  the  faith  of  the 
other.  Beside  tliis  is  the  Temptation  of  Christ  by  the  devil, 
who,  terrified  by  the  words  of  Jesus,  stands  before  him  in 
an  attitude  of  abject  fear ;  showing  that  he  knows  Christ  to 
be  the  Son  of  Cod.  Next  to  this,  on  the  opposite  fold,  is 
the  Saviour  driving  the  money-changers  from  the  Temple, 
overturning  their  tables,  and  casting  forth  the  animals  for 
sacrifice,  the  doves,  and  other  merchandize.  In  this  pict- 
ure the  figures  of  the  expelled  traders  falling  over  each 
other  in  their  flight,  are  full  of  grace  and  beauty,  giving 


Lorenzo  ghiberti 


201 


proof  of  infinite  judgment  in  the  artist.  Beside  the  Expul- 
sion from  the  Temple  is  the  Shipwreck  of  the  Apostles^ 
with  St.  Peter,  who,  having  descended  from  the  ship,  is 
sinking  in  the  waves,  but  is  supported  by  Jesus.  This 
story  exhibits  a  rich  variety  in  the  different  attitudes  of  the 
Apostles,  wlio  are  labouring  to  save  the  ship  ;  and  the  faith 
of  St.  Peter  is  made  manifest  by  his  proceeding  to  join 
Christ  on  the  water.  On  the  other  leaf,  and  over  the  story 
of  the  Baptism,  is  that  of  the  Transfiguration  on  Mount 
Tabor,  wherein  Lorenzo  has  shown,  in  the  attitudes  of  the 
Apostles,  liow  the  eyes  of  mortals  are  dazzled  by  the  sight 
of  celestial  glories  ;  while  the  divinity  of  Christ  is  made 
obvious,  as  he  holds  his  head  aloft,  and  with  extended  arms 
appears  between  the  figures  of  Moses  and  Elias.  Beside 
this  is  the  Resurrection  of  Lazarus  from  the  dead  :  he  is- 
sues from  the  sepulchre,  and  stands  before  the  spectators 
with  his  hands  and  feet  bound,  to  the  infinite  astonishment 
of  all.  Martha  is  present,  with  Mary  Magdalene,  who 
kisses  the  feet  of  the  Saviour  with  the  utmost  reverence  and 
humility.  On  the  same  level  with  these  two  last  mentioned 
scenes,  but  on  the  opposite  leaf  of  the  door,  is  Christ  enter- 
ing Jerusalem,  seated  on  the  ass,  while  the  children  of  the 
Hebrews  cast  their  garments  before  Him,  and  strew  the 
path  of  the  Redeemer  with  palm  leaves  and  olive  branches  ; 
the  Apostles  are  also  shown,  following  their  Master.  Be- 
side this  scene  is  the  Last  Supper,  an  admirable  com^iosi- 
tion,  and  full  of  beauty  in  all  its  parts  :  the  figures  are 
seated  at  a  long  table,  lialf  placed  Avitliin  and  half  without 
the  chamber.  Above  the  Transfiguration  is  the  Saviour  on 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  where  the  three  Apostles  are  seen 
asleep  in  various  attitudes  of  much  truth  and  beauty.  The 
story  beside  tliis  is  that  of  Christ  betrayed  by  Judas,  and 
taken  by  the  Jews,  which  presents  many  admirable  cliarac- 
teristics  well  meriting  attentive  consideration.  The  Apos- 
tles, who  have  been  put  to  flight,  exliibit  many  fine  atti- 
tudes, while  those  of  the  Jews  who  take  the  Saviour  captive 
equally  display  the  violence  they  are  using,  and  the  triumph 


909 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


they  feel.  On  the  opposite  fold  of  the  door,  and  at  the 
same  height  with  these,  is  Christ  bound  to  the  column,  his 
figure,  bent  beneath  the  flagellation,  is  somewhat  contorted 
by  the  pain  he  suffers,  and  exhibits  an  attitude  which 
awakens  deep  compassion,  while  a  fearful  rage  and  desire 
for  vengeance  are  manifest  in  the  gestures  and  faces  of  the 
Jews  by  whom  he  is  tortured.  Beside  this  story  is  that  of 
Christ  conducted  before  Pilate,  who  washes  his  hands,  and 
condemns  the  Saviour  to  the  cross. 

Above  the  scene  in  the  garden,  on  the  other  side,  and  in 
the  last  series  of  these  representations,  is  Christ  bearing  his 
Cross,  and  led  to  death  by  a  furious  rabble  of  the  soldiery, 
who,  by  the  violence  of  their  gestures,  appear  to  drag 
Him  forcibly  along.  The  deep  grief  and  bitter  wailings  of 
the  Maries  are  also  expressed  with  so  much  truth  and  vivid- 
ness, that  those  who  were  present  at  this  mournful  spec- 
tacle can  scarcely  have  seen  it  more  clearly.  Near  to  this 
picture  is  that  of  Christ  crucified,  with  Our  Lady  and  St. 
John  the  Evangelist  seated  on  the  earth,  overwhelmed  with 
grief  and  indignation.  On  the  opposite  fold  of  the  door  is 
then  depicted  the  Resurrection,  where  the  guards  lie,  like 
dead  men,  in  a  deep  sleep,  while  the  Saviour  rises  upwards  ; 
and  such  is  the  grace  of  his  attitude,  and  the  perfection  of 
the  beautiful  limbs  produced  by  the  genius  and  patience  of 
Lorenzo,  that  he  does  indeed  appear  to  be  glorified.  Fi- 
nally, in  the  last  compartment,  appears  the  Holy  Spirit 
descending  on  the  Apostles  ;  and  truly  exquisite  are  the 
attitudes  and  expressions  of  those  who  receive  it. 

This  great  work  was  carried  forward  to  its  completion 
without  sparing  either  cost,  time,  or  whatever  else  could 
promote  the  successful  termination  of  the  enterprise  ;  the 
nude  figures  are  in  all  parts  most  beautiful,  and  the  draper- 
ies, although  still  retaining  some  slight  trace  of  the  older 
manner  of  G-iotto^s  day,  have,  nevertheless,  a  direct  ten- 
dency towards  that  of  more  modern  times,  and  this  gives  to 
figures  of  that  size  a  grace  of  character  which  is  very  attrac- 
tive.   The  composition  of  each  story  is,  of  a  truth,  so  well 


LORENZO  GIIIBERTI 


203 


arranged,  the  figures  are  so  judiciously  grouped,  and  so 
finely  executed,  that  the  whole  work  richly  deserves  the 
praise  bestowed  on  it  in  the  commencement,  by  Filippo. 
The  merits  of  Lorenzo  were  most  honourably  acknowledged 
by  his  fellow  citizens,  and  from  them  in  general,  as  well  as 
from  the  artists  in  particular,  whether  compatriots  or  for- 
eigners, he  received  the  highest  commendations.  This  work, 
with  its  exterior  ornaments,  which  are  also  of  metal,  rep- 
resenting festoons  of  fruits,  and  figures  of  animals,  cost 
22,000  florins,  and  the  door  weighed  34,000  pounds." 

This  undertaking  being  completed,  the  consuls  of  the 
Guild  of  Merchants  considered  that  they  had  been  extreme- 
ly well  served,  and  hearing  the  praises  given  to  Lorenzo  by 
all  beholders,  they  determined  that  he  should  execute  a 
second  work,  to  be  placed  in  one  of  the  niches  outside  Or 
San  Michele,  and  opposite  to  the  building  occupied  by  the 
cloth-dressers.  This  was  a  statue  in  bronze,  four  braccia 
and  a  half  high,  to  the  honour  of  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
Lorenzo  commenced  the  work  accordingly  ;  nor  did  he  ever 
leave  it  until  its  entire  completion  :  this  figure  also  has 

"  Ghiberti's  first  gates  were  commenced  in  1403  and  placed  in  1424.  There 
are  two  valves  with  fourteen  bas-reliefa  in  each  valve.  The  stories  are  from 
the  New  Testament ;  each  relief  has  its  own  border  of  leafage,  adorned  also 
with  the  head  of  a  prophet  or  sibyl.  In  eight  of  the  reliefs  are  the  Evangel- 
ists and  Fathers  of  the  church  ;  in  the  others  are  The  Annunciation  ;  The  Na- 
tivity ;  The  Adoration  of  the  Magi ;  Christ  among  the  Doctors  ;  The  Bap- 
tism of  Christ ;  The  Temptation  ;  The  Vendors  Driven  from  the  Temple  ; 
The  Barque  of  Peter  ;  The  Transfiguration  ;  The  Raising  of  Lazarus  ;  Christ 
Entering  Jerusalem  ;  The  Last  Supper  ;  Christ  in  the  Garden  ;  The  Kiss  of 
Judas  ;  The  Flagellation ;  Christ  before  Pilate  ;  The  Bearing  of  the  Cross  ; 
The  Crucifixion ;  The  Resim  ection ;  The  Holy  Women  at  the  Tomb  of 
Christ.  M.  Eug.  Miintz  in  his  Primitifs  in  characterizing  these  reliefs  as 
an  outcome  of  Gothic  art,  says  that  Ghiberti  in  studying  the  harmony,  ear- 
nestness, and  simplicity  of  Andrea  Pisano's  figures  in  his  first  gate  of  the  Bap- 
tistery has  added  to  the  qualities  of  Andrea  ''more  ease,  greater  and  richer 
variety  of  composition,  more  perfect  grace."  He  adds  that  Ghiberti  has 
created  "  costumes  which  are  intermediate  between  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
Renaissance,  and  a  transitional  architecture  not  yet  frankly  antique."  He 
considers  that  this  second  gate  (the  first  by  Ghiberti)  of  the  Baptistery  is,  if 
compared  with  Lorenzo's  competitive  relief,  the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,  almost 
a  retrogression. 


204 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


been,  and  still  is,  highly  commended  :  the  name  of  the  ar- 
tist is  engraved  on  the  mantle.  The  statue  of  the  Baptist 
was  placed  in  the  tabernacle  designed  for  it  in  the  year 
1414,  and  in  the  head,  in  an  arm,  which  seems  to  be  of  the 
living  flesh  rather  than  of  bronze,  in  the  hands,  and  in  the 
attitude,  may  be  seen  a  commencement  of  the  good  modern 
manner.  Lorenzo  was  the  first  who  began  to  imitate  the 
works  of  the  ancient  Romans,  of  which  he  was  a  zealous 
student,  as  all  must  be  who  would  attain  to  perfection  in 
their  art.  In  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the  tabernacle 
enclosing  this  figure,  the  master  made  an  attempt  in  mosaic, 
placing  there  the  half-length  figure  of  a  prophet. 

The  fame  of  Lorenzo  had  now  extended  not  only  through- 
out all  Italy,  but  also  into  other  countries,  where  he  was 
considered  the  most  ingenious  of  all  the  masters  in  foundry 
work,  insomuch  that  Jacopo  della  Fonte,  Donate,  and  the 
Sienese  Vecchietto  having  executed  certain  figures  and  his- 
torical pieces  in  bronze  for  the  Signoria  of  Siena,  to  be 
placed  in  their  church  of  San  Giovanni,  and  which  were  in- 
tended to  adorn  the  baptismal  font  of  that  church,  the 
Sienese  (having  seen  the  works  of  Lorenzo  in  Florence) 
agreed  among  themselves  that  he  also  should  execute  two 
stories  for  them  :  the  subjects  of  these  works  were  from 
the  life  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  in  one  was  represented  the 
Baptism  of  Christ  by  St.  John,  who  is  accompanied  by 
many  figures,  some  naked,  others  very  richly  dressed.  The 
second  exhibits  the  Baptist  when  taken  and  led  before 
Herod.  In  these  works  Lorenzo  greatly  surpassed  the  ar- 
tists who  had  executed  the  others,  and  was  in  consequence 
very  highly  commended  by  the  Sienese,  and  by  all  who  be- 
held the  work. 

The  masters  of  the  Mint    had  to  furnish  a  statue  for 

"  The  panels  of  the  font  were  executed  as  follows :  Two  by  Turino  di  Sano 
and  his  son  Giovanni  (commissioned  1417),  two  by  Ghiberti  (1417-1427),  one 
by  Jacopo  della  Quercia,  one  by  Donatello.  Milanesi  does  not  believe  that  Vec- 
chietta  worked  upon  the  font,  considering  that  the  dates  make  it  improbable. 

13  Not  the  masters  of  the  Mint  but  the  guild  of  Bankers.  The  statue  of 
St.  Matthew  was  finished  in  1420  and  set  up  in  1423.    The  statuettes  above 


LORENZO  GHIBEim 


205 


one  of  those  niches  of  Or  San  Michele,  which  are  opposite 
to  the  Guild  of  the  Weavers.  This  statue  was  to  represent 
St.  Matthew,  and  to  be  of  the  same  height  with  that  of  St. 
John  above  described.  They  confided  the  charge  of  it, 
therefore,  to  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  who  produced  a  work  of  the 
utmost  perfection,  and  one  which  was  more  highly  praised 
than  that  of  St.  John,  the  master  having  executed  it  more 
in  the  modern  manner.  The  successful  completion  of  this 
statue  caused  the  Guild  of  the  Woolstaplers  to  determine 
that  our  artist  should  execute  another  for  the  same  place, 
likewise  in  bronze,  and  of  the  same  proportions  with  that 
of  St.  Matthew.  The  figure  was  to  represent  St.  Stephen, 
who  was  the  patron  saint  of  that  guild,  and  was  to  be  placed 
in  the  niche  following  that  of  St.  Matthew.  This  also 
Lorenzo  completed  very  happily,  giving  the  bronze  a  very 
beautiful  varnish,  insomuch  that  this  statue  afforded  no 
less  satisfaction  than  those  before  mentioned,  or  than  the 
other  works  performed  in  Florence  by  the  same  master. 

At  that  time  Maestro  Leonardo  Dati  was  general  of  the 
Preaching  Friars,  and,  desiring  to  leave  to  his  country  a 
memorial  of  himself  in  Santa  Maria  Novella,  wliere  he  had 
taken  his  vows,  he  caused  Lorenzo  to  construct  a  sepulchre 
of  bronze,  with  his  own  figure,  taken  from  nature,  in  a 
recumbent  position  thereon  and  from  this  work,  which 
was  very  much  admired,  there  arose  another,  which  Ludo- 
vico  degli  Albizzi  and  Niccolo  Valori  caused  to  be  con- 
structed in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce. 

it  on  the  pinnacles  are  by  Niccolo  d'Arezzo.  (See  M.  Reymond,  Gazette  des 
Beaux  Arts^  1891.)  M.  Reymond  also  attributes  to  Niccolo  the  statue  of 
Sant'  Jacopo  and  the  fine  relief  beneath  it,  and  dates  it  as  the  second  work 
upon  the  exterior  of  Or  San  Michele. 

'*  The  St.  Stephen  was  executed  in  1428. 

i^This  slab  is  greatly  worn  by  the  feet  of  passers.  Dati  died  in  1424,  and 
his  monument  was  set  here  at  public  expense  as  a  reward  for  service  done  the 
Commune  as  Ambassador. 

Milanesi  quotes  Ghibcrti's  own  commentary  to  prove  that  the  effigy  of 
Ludovico  degli  Obizi  (as  Lorenzo  calls  him)  was  designed  but  not  executed 
eirca  1427,  and  that  the  other  tomb  commemorated  Bartolommeo  Valori,  not 
Niccolo. 


^206 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


After  these  things,  Cosimo  and  Lorenzo  de^  Medici  desir- 
ing to  do  honour  to  the  relics  of  the  three  martyrs,  Pro- 
tus,  Hyacinthus,  and  Nemesius,  caused  their  bodies  to  be 
brought  from  Casentino,  where  they  had  remained,  receiv- 
ing but  little  veneration,  for  many  years,  and  commissioned 
Lorenzo  to  prepare  a  tomb  of  bronze.  In  the  midst  thereof 
are  two  angels,  in  basso-rilievo,  holding  a  garland  of  olive, 
within  which  is  inscribed  the  names  of  the  aforesaid  mar- 
tyrs. In  this  tomb  were  placed  the  above-named  relics, 
and  it  was  fixed  in  the  church  belonging  to  the  monastery 
of  the  Angeli,  in  Florence.  On  the  lower  part,  and  on  that 
side  which  is  turned  towards  the  church  of  the  monks,  are 
the  following  words,  engraved  on  marble  : — 

"Clarissimi  viri  Cosmas  et  Laurentius  fratres  neglectas  diu 
sanctorum  reliquias  martyrum  religioso  studio  ac  tidelissima 
pietate  suis  sumptibus  aereis  loculis  condendas  colendasque  cura- 
runt." 

And  on  the  outer  side,  where  the  little  church  faces  towards 
the  road,  are  the  words  hereafter  recited,  also  engraved  on 
marble,  beneath  the  arms  of  the  Medici : — 

"Hie  condita  sunt  corpora  sanctorum  Christi  Martyrum  Prothi 
et  Hyacinthi,  et  Nemesii,*  Ann.  Dom.  1428." 

This  work  likewise  succeeded  perfectly  well,  and  from 
that  circumstance  there  arose  a  wish  on  the  part  of  the  war- 
dens of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  to  have  a  sarcophagus  and 
monument  of  bronze  constructed  by  the  same  master,  for 
the  reception  of  the  body  of  San  Zanobi,  bishop  of  Flor- 
ence. This  tomb  is  three  braccia  and  a  half  long  and  two 
high  ;  it  is  decorated  with  many  and  varied  ornaments,  and 

^  Prote  and  Hyacintii,  in  the  Milanesi  Edition. 

'7  When  the  monastery  was  suppressed  this  tomb,  executed  1428,  was  broken 
up  and  sold  for  old  bronze.  It  has  been  put  together  again,  and  is  in  the 
Museo  Nazionale,  or  Bargello. 

18  The  bronze  sarcophagus  was  originally  intended,  according  to  Bottari,  to 
hold  only  the  head  of  San  Zanobi  (Zenobius).  Ordered  in  1432  of  Ghiberti, 
the  sarcophagus  was  completed  in  144G.    It  is  still  in  the  cathedral. 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


207 


in  the  centre  of  the  front  Lorenzo  has  represented  San 
Zanobi  restoring  to  life  a  child  who  had  been  left  to  his  care 
by  the  mother,  and  who  had  died  while  she  was  absent  on  a 
pilgrimage.  In  a  second  relief  is  also  a  child  who  has  been 
killed  by  a  wagon,  with  the  same  saint,  who  resuscitates  one 
of  the  two  servants  or  lay-brothers  sent  to  him  by  Sant' 
Ambrogio,  and  of  whom  one  had  died  in  crossing  the  Alps. 
The  companion  of  the  dead  servant  stands  before  the  saint 
bewailing  his  loss,  when  San  Zanobi,  moved  to  compassion, 
consoles  him  by  the  words,  be  at  peace  :  he  doth  but  sleep, 
and  thou  shalt  see  him  alive  again."  On  the  back  of  the 
tomb  are  six  angels,  who  hold  a  garland  of  elm-leaves, 
within  which  are  certain  words  to  the  praise  of  San  Zanobi, 
and  in  memory  of  that  saint.  To  this  work  also  Lorenzo 
gave  the  most  earnest  care,  and  putting  forth  the  many  re- 
sources of  his  art,  he  finished  it  most  successfully,  insomuch 
that  it  was  greatly  celebrated,  and  considered  an  extraordi- 
narily beautiful  thing. 

While  the  works  of  Lorenzo,  who  executed  innumerable 
commissions  for  various  persons  in  gold  and  silver,  as  well 
as  in  bronze,  were  daily  increasing  his  fame,  it  chanced  that 
there  fell  into  the  hands  of  Giovanni,  son  of  Cosmo  de'  Me- 
dici, a  large  cornelian,  on  which  the  fiaying  of  Marsyas  by 
Apollo  was  represented  in  intaglio,  which  cornelian,  as  it 
was  said,  had  once  served  the  emperor  Nero  for  a  seal,  and 
this  being  esteemed  a  rare  thing,  as  well  for  the  size  of  the 
stone,  which  was  large,  as  for  the  marvellous  beauty  of  the 
intaglio,  Giovanni  gave  it  to  Lorenzo,  to  the  end  that  he 
should  make  a  gold  ornament,  also  intaglio,  to  enclose  and 
surround  it ;  at  this  work  the  master  laboured  several 
months,  but  when  it  was  completed,  the  intaglio  that  he 
had  executed  around  it  was  found  to  be  no  less  beautiful 
and  meritorious  than  was  the  admirably  perfect  engraving 
of  the  stone  itself.  The  success  of  this  work  caused  Lorenzo 
to  receive  commissions  for  many  others  in  gold  and  silver, 
but  which  are  not  now  to  be  found.  Among  other  orna- 
ments he  made  a  clasp  or  fastening  of  gold  for  Pope  Martin, 


208 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


which  that  pontiff  wore  in  his  cope  :  this  was  adorned  with 
figures  in  full  relief^  and  among  them  were  placed  jewels  of 
very  great  price — a  truly  excellent  work.  He  also  made  a 
wonderfully  rich  mitre,  formed  of  foliage  in  gold,  the  leaves 
being  wholly  detached  from  the  surface  and  of  very  beauti- 
ful effect :  among  them  were  also  many  small  figures  in  full 
relief,  which  were  considered  marvellously  fine.  From  this 
work  the  master  not  only  acquired  increase  of  fame,  but 
also  large  rewards  from  the  liberality  of  Pope  Martin. 

In  the  year  1439  Pope  Eugenius  arrived  in  Florence  to 
unite  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches,  when  the  Florentine 
council  was  held.  The  pope  having  seen  the  works  of  Lo- 
renzo Grhiberti,  and  being  no  less  pleased  with  them  than 
with  the  artist  himself,  who  was  very  acceptable  to  that  pon- 
tiff, his  holiness  commanded  him  to  make  a  mitre  of  gold, 
weighing  fifteen  pounds,  with  pearls,  the  weight  of  which 
was  five  pounds  and  a  half,  the  whole  being  estimated — with 
the  jewels  also  set  in  the  mitre — at  30,000  ducats  of  gold.'^ 
It  is  said  that  among  these  pearls  were  six  of  the  size  of  fil- 
berts, and  no  imagination  could  conceive  any  thing  more 
beautiful  (according  to  what  was  afterwards  seen  in  a  design 
of  the  whole)  than  the  fanciful  arrangement  of  these  jewels, 
with  the  variety  of  figures,  of  children  and  others,  which 
formed  the  varied  and  most  graceful  decoration  of  this  work 
for  which  the  master  received  many  favours  from  the  pon- 
tiff both  for  himself  and  his  friends,  besides  the  first  remun- 
eration of  his  labours. 

The  city  of  Florence  had  acquired  so  much  glory  and 
praise  from  the  admirable  works  of  this  most  ingenious 
artist,  that  a  resolution  was  taken  by  the  consuls  of  the 
Guild  of  the  Merchants  to  give  him  a  commission  for  the 
third  door  of  San  Giovanni,  which  was  also  to  be  of  bronze. 

"  Pope  Eugenius  came  to  Florence  in  1438. 

20  M.  Miintz,  Les  Primitifs,  p.  535,  gives  the  date  of  the  clasp  and  mitre  for 
Pope  Martin  as  the  year  1419.  These  jewels  have  all  disappeared,  as  well  as 
the  gold  work  in  which  they  were  set.  Cellini  declares  in  his  memoirs  that 
Ghiberti  was  at  his  best  as  a  goldsmith,  "and  more  in  his  true  profession" 
when  occupied  with  small  figures  than  when  designing  large  ones. 


LOEENZO  GHIBERTI  209 

In  the  case  of  the  first  door,  which  Lorenzo  had  made,  he 
had  followed  the  directions  of  the  consuls,  as  regarded  the 
decoration  of  the  frame-work,  by  which  the  figures  were 
surrounded,  since  they  had  determined  that  the  general  form 
of  all  the  doors  should  be  similar  to  that  constructed  by  An- 
drea Pisano.  But  having  now  seen  how  greatly  Lorenzo 
had  surpassed  the  elder  master,  the  consuls  resolved  to 
change  the  position  of  the  doors,  and  whereas  that  of  An- 
drea had  previously  occupied  the  centre,  they  now  placed  it 
on  the  side  of  the  building  which  stands  opposite  to  the 
Misericordia,  proposing  that  the  new  door  to  be  made  by 
Lorenzo  should  be  substituted  for  it,  and  should  thencefor- 
ward occupy  the  centre ;  for  they  fully  expected  that  he 
would  put  forth  every  effort  and  zealously  employ  all  the  re- 
sources of  his  art,  insomuch  that  they  now  placed  themselves 
in  his  hands  without  reserve,  referring  the  whole  matter 
entirely  to  his  care,  and  declaring  that  they  gave  him  full 
permission  to  proceed  with  the  work  as  he  should  think 
best, 21  and  to  do  whatever  might  most  effectually  secure 
that  this  third  door  should  be  the  richest,  most  highly 
adorned,  most  beautiful  and  most  perfect,  that  he  could 
possibly  contrive,  or  that  could  be  imagined.  Nor  would 
they  have  him  spare  either  time  or  labour,  to  the  end  that 
as  he  had  previously  surpassed  all  the  sculptors  that  had 
lived  before  him,  so  he  might  now  eclipse  and  surpass  all  his 
own  earlier  works. 

Lorenzo  commenced  the  undertaking,  calling  all  his 
knowledge  and  ability  of  every  kind  to  aid.  He  divided  his 
work  into  ten  compartments,  or  pictures,  five  on  each  side, 
which  gave  to  each  compartment  one  braccio  and  a  third  ; 
around  the  whole  and  serving  as  an  ornament  to  the  f rame- 

There  is  an  interesting  letter  from  Lionardo  Aretino  to  Niccolo  da  Uz- 
zano  and  the  other  Deputati,  containing  suggestions  concerning  the  subjects 
of  the  bas-reliefs,  and  stating  that  they  should  first  of  all  be  "subjects  capa- 
ble of  illustration,"  and  secondly,  that  "  they  should  be  significant."  He  adds 
that  he  has  selected  ten  histories  and  eight  Prophets  to  be  figured  on  the  doors, 
and  remarks  that  he  should  be  glad  to  be  at  the  elbow  of  the  designer  so  as  to 
make  him  feel  the  full  significance  of  each  story. 


210 


LORENZO  GHIBEKTI 


work  which  encloses  the  stories^,  are  niches  filled  with  figures 
in  almost  full  relief,  the  number  of  which  is  twenty,  all  of 
exceeding  beauty.  Among  others  is  the  naked  form  of 
Samson,  with  a  jaw-bone  in  his  hand  and  his  arm  round  a 
column,  and  this  exhibits  a  degree  of  perfection  which  will 
bear  comparison  with  that  displayed  by  the  ancients  in  their 
figures  of  Hercules,  whether  in  bronze  or  marble.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Joshua,  who  is  in  the  act  of  addressing  his 
army,  and  really  seems  to  speak  :  there  are  besides,  many 
prophets  and  sibyls,  adorned  in  a  richly- varied  manner,  and 
displaying  the  utmost  fertility  of  invention  in  draperies, 
head-dresses,  ornaments  of  the  hair,  and  other  decorations. 
Twelve  figures,  in  a  recumbent  position,  were  placed  in 
the  niches,  which  are  at  each  corner ;  and  on  the  angles,  in 
circular  cavities,  the  master  executed  female  heads,  with 
those  of  youths  and  old  men,  the  number  of  all  being 
thirty-four.^  Among  these  heads,  towards  the  centre  of 
the  door  and  near  to  the  place  where  the  master  has  en- 
graved his  name,  is  the  portrait  of  his  father-in-law  Barto- 
luccio,  which  is  the  oldest  of  the  series,  while  that  of  the 
youngest  man  is  the  head  of  Lorenzo  himself,  the  author  of 
the  whole  work.  There  are  besides  innumerable  decorations 
of  foliage,  cornices,  and  other  ornaments,  all  arranged  and 
perfected  with  the  utmost  ability  and  the  most  zealous  care. 
The  folds  of  this  door  are  adorned,  as  we  have  said,  with 
stories  from  the  Old  Testament — the  first  presents  the  cre- 
ation of  Adam,  and  Eve,  his  wife,  whose  figures  exhibit  the 
very  perfection  of  beauty;  and  here  we  perceive  that  Lo- 
renzo has  had  it  at  heart  to  give  them  the  most  exquisite 
forms  that  he  could  devise,  intending  to  show  that  as  our 
first  parents  came  from  the  hand  of  God,  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  the  creatures  that  had  been  made,  so  in  his  work  they 
were  designed  to  surpass  all  the  others  that  he  had  ever 
produced  in  any  of  his  works :  without  doubt  a  most 
worthy  consideration.  In  the  same  picture  are  seen  our 
first  parents  eating  the  apple,  and  also  at  the  moment  when 

Four  figures  rather.  Twenty-four  figures  rather. 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


211 


they  are  driven  out  of  Paradise  :  and  here  the  attitudes  of 
the  figures  express  the  first  effects  of  their  sin  ;  they  are 
made  aware  of  their  nakedness,  which  they  seek  to  conceal. 
We  finally  see  them  receive  tlieir  punishment,  being  com- 
pelled by  the  angel  to  depart  from  Paradise. 

In  the  second  compartment  are  Adam  and  Eve,  with  their 
two  little  children,  Cain  and  Abel.  These  last  are  also 
shown  when  Abel  is  offering  the  best  of  his  flock  in  sacri  - 
fice, while  Cain  presents  the  less  worthy  oblation.  The 
expression  of  the  latter  displays  his  envy  of  his  brother — 
that  of  Abel  makes  manifest  the  love  he  bears  to  God.  One 
part  of  this  picture  is  of  singular  beauty  :  it  exhibits  Cain 
ploughing  the  earth  with  a  pair  of  oxen,  whose  labour,  and 
the  efforts  they  make  beneath  the  yoke,  are  so  admirably 
exhibited,  that  they  seem  alive  and  in  positive  motion. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  figure  of  Abel,  who  is  keeping 
his  flocks  :  he  is  then  slain  by  his  brother,  and  here  the 
movements  of  Cain  are  full  of  violence  ;  his  expression  is 
that  of  pitiless  cruelty,  as  he  strikes  his  brother  with  his 
club,  while  the  bronze  itself  has  been  made  to  exhibit  the 
languor  of  death  in  the  most  beautiful  form  of  Abel.  In 
the  distance,  moreover,  and  executed  in  basso-rilievo,  is 
seen  the  Almighty  Father,  demanding  from  Cain  what  he 
has  done  with  his  brother.  Each  of  the  compartments 
comprise  four  stories.  In  the  third  Lorenzo  represented 
the  patriarch  Noah  issuing  from  the  ark,  with  his  wife,  his 
sons,  his  daughters,  and  the  wives  of  his  sons,  together  with 
all  the  animals,  those  of  the  air  as  well  as  of  the  earth  :  all 
these  creatures  are  finished  with  such  perfection  of  ex- 
cellence, each  in  its  kind,  that  it  is  not  possible  for  art 
more  effectually  to  imitate  nature.  The  open  ark  is  seen 
in  the  extreme  distance,  with  the  desolation  caused  by  the 
deluge  :  this  part  is  in  perspective  and  in  the  lowest  relief 
(bassissimo-rilievo),  the  whole  being  treated  with  the  ut- 
most delicacy  :  the  figures  of  Noah  and  his  sons  could  not 
possibly  be  more  full  of  life,  as  they  offer  their  sacrifice 
to  God,  while  the  rainbow,  the  sign  of  peace  between  God 


212 


LORENZO  GUIBERTI 


and  Noah,  is  seen  in  the  heavens.  But  much  the  most  ad- 
mirable of  all  is  the  scene  when  Noah  has  planted  the  vine, 
and  having  drunk  of  the  fruit  thereof  has  become  inebri- 
ated, and  is  exposed  to  the  derision  of  Ham,  his  son.  And 
of  a  truth  no  sleeping  figure  could  be  more  exactly  imitated, 
the  utter  abandonment  of  the  intoxicated  limbs  is  finely 
rendered,  the  love  and  consideration  exhibited  by  the  other 
sons  of  Noah  are  equally  well  expressed,  and  the  attitudes 
of  the  latter  are  beautiful.  The  vine,  the  cask,  with  all 
the  requisites  of  the  vintage,  are  moreover  exhibited,  but 
with  so  much  judgment  and  all  so  treated,  that  they  do  not 
impede  the  action  of  the  story,  but  on  the  contrary  increase 
its  force  and  give  it  most  appropriate  ornament.  For  the 
fourth  story  of  this  compartment  Lorenzo  has  chosen  the 
appearance  of  the  three  angels  in  the  valley  of  Mamre  : 
these  figures  have  a  close  resemblance  to  each  other  :  the 
holy  patriarch  is  seen  in  the  act  of  adoration  before  his  ce- 
lestial visitors,  his  hands  are  folded,  and  the  expression  of 
his  countenance  is  most  life-like  and  appropriate.  The 
servants  with  the  ass,  who  are  represented  as  awaiting 
Abraham  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  whither  he  has  gone 
to  make  the  sacrifice  of  his  son,  are  equally  excellent. 
Isaac  stands  naked  on  the  altar,  while  the  father,  with  up- 
raised arm,  is  in  the  act  of  proving  his  obedience,  when  he 
is  prevented  by  the  angel,  who  arrests  his  arm  with  one 
hand,  while  he  points  with  the  other  to  the  animal  which 
he  is  to  offer  in  sacrifice,  and  thus  delivers  Isaac  from  death. 
This  story  is  of  a  truth  exceedingly  beautiful,  and  among 
other  matters  worthy  of  observation  is  the  great  difference 
between  the  delicate  limbs  of  Isaac  and  those  of  the  more 
robust  servants,  insomuch  that  there  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  a  touch  given  which  had  not  been  calculated  with  the 
nicest  exactitude  and  the  most  perfect  knowledge  of  art. 
In  the  difficult  matter  of  representing  the  buildings,  Loren- 
zo appears  to  have  surpassed  himself  in  this  work  :  the 
birth  of  Isaac's  sons,  Esau  and  Jacob,  with  the  chase  of  the 
former,  at  the  desire  of  his  father,  must  also  be  particular- 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


213 


ized  :  Jacob  conducted  by  Rebecca,  is  offering  the  prepared 
kid,  the  skin  of  which  his  mother  has  wrapped  around  his 
throat,  while  Isaac  stretches  out  his  hands  towards  him  and 
bestows  the  benediction  :  all  these  things  are  admirably  rep- 
resented ;  there  are  besides  many  beautiful  dogs  in  this 
picture,  and  the  figures  of  Isaac,  of  Jacob,  and  of  Rebecca, 
must  needs  exhibit  precisely  the  effect  produced  in  their 
actual  life. 

Animated  and  exalted  by  the  study  of  his  art,  its  diffi- 
culties became  daily  more  familiar  to  the  master,  and  pre- 
sented less  formidable  obstacles  to  his  efforts,  insomuch 
that  he  was  constantly  emboldened  to  new  enterprises.  His 
sixth  compartment  represents  Joseph  cast  by  his  brethren 
into  the  well,  and  also  his  deliverance  therefrom  by  the 
merchants,  by  whom  he  is  presented  to  Pharaoh  :  the  inter- 
pretation of  Pharaoh^s  dream  is  likewise  exhibited,  with  the 
precautions  taken  to  provide  for  the  years  of  famine  and 
the  honours  rendered  to  Joseph  by  Pharaoh.  Then  follows 
the  patriarch  Jacob  despatching  his  sons  into  Egypt  for  the 
purpose  of  buying  corn,  where,  being  recognised  by  Joseph, 
he  causes  them  to  return  to  their  father.  In  this  story 
Lorenzo  displayed  his  mastery  over  the  difficulties  of  per- 
spective, in  a  circular  temple,  which  is  one  of  the  objects  ; 
there  are,  besides,  various  figures  differently  occupied  in 
loading  corn  and  meal,  with  asses,  which  are  also  most  nat- 
urally represented.  The  feast  given  by  Joseph  to  his 
brethren,  the  concealment  of  the  gold  cup  in  tlie  sack  of 
Benjamin,  its  discovery,  witli  the  return  of  the  travellers  lo 
Joseph,  who  makes  himself  known  to  and  embraces  liis 
brethren — all  these  things  are  here  shown,  and  this  story, 
for  the  varied  passions  and  affections  pourtrayed  in  it,  as 
well  as  for  the  many  rich  accessories,  is  considered  to  be 
the  most  remarkable,  difficult,  and  beautiful  of  the  whole 
work. 

But  Lorenzo  was,  of  a  truth,  endowed  with  so  fine  a  ge- 
nius, and  possessed  so  peculiar  a  grace  in  the  execution  of 
the  figures  here  described,  that  when  his  mind  became  oc- 


214 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


cupied  in  the  composition  of  a  beautiful  story,  he  could  not 
well  do  otherwise  than  produce  exquisite  forms  ;  and  this 
we  may  infer  from  the  seventh  compartment,  which  repre- 
sents Mount  Sinai,  with  Moses  on  the  summit,  receiving  the 
Laws  from  God,  and  kneeling  in  adoration,  with  the  appro- 
priate expression  of  reverence :  midway  up  the  mountain 
is  Joshua,  who  is  awaiting  the  return  of  Moses,  and  the  as- 
sembled people  are  gathered  at  the  foot  of  the  Mount,  terri- 
fied by  the  thunders,  lightnings,  and  earthquakes,  and  ex- 
hibiting an  infinite  variety  of  attitude,  all  represented  with 
the  utmost  truth  and  nature.  The  master  has  also  shown 
great  love  and  diligence  in  the  third  compartment,  wherein 
he  has  pourtrayed  Joshua  proceeding  against  Jericho,  and 
causing  the  river  Jordan  to  flow  backwards.  Pie  has  here 
represented  twelve  tents,  for  the  twelve  tribes,  all  full  of 
highly  animated  figures  :  and  still  more  beautiful  are  some 
others,  in  basso-rilievo,  who  are  proceeding  with  the  ark 
around  the  walls  of  the  aforesaid  city,  when  those  walls  are 
overthrown  at  the  sound  of  the  trumpets,  and  Jericho  is 
taken  by  the  Hebrews.  In  this  picture  the  relief  of  the 
landscape  is  gradually  lowered,  so  that  the  distance  is  in- 
creased with  great  judgment,  and  the  true  proportions  of 
the  first  figures  to  the  mountains,  with  those  of  the  moun- 
tains to  the  city,  and  of  the  city  to  the  distant  country,  are 
observed  with  infinite  care,  the  degrees  of  relief  being  regu- 
lated with  the  nicest  judgment,  and  the  whole  work  con- 
ducted to  the  utmost  perfection  :  the  experience  of  the 
master,  and  his  power  in  his  art,  increasing  from  day  to 
day.  In  the  ninth  picture  he  has  represented  the  Giant 
Goliath,  with  David,  in  a  proud  yet  childlike  attitude,  who 
cuts  off  the  Philistine^s  head,  when  the  army  of  God  de- 
stroys that  of  the  pagan.  Here  the  artist  has  represented 
horses,  chariots,  and  all  the  other  accessories  appertaining 
to  war.  In  another  part  is  seen  David  returning  with  the 
head  of  Goliath  in  his  hand,  and  received  by  the  people, 
who  meet  him  with  songs  and  the  sound  of  instruments,  all 
pourtrayed  with  perfect  truth  and  full  of  animation.  There 


LORENZO  GIIIBERTI 


215 


now  remained  for  Lorenzo  to  put  forth  all  his  strength  for 
the  tenth  and  last  picture,  where  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  with 
a  splendid  retinue,  pays  her  visit  to  King  Solomon.  Here 
there  is  a  building  drawn  in  perspective,  and  exceedingly 
fine,  with  a  variety  of  figures  similar  to  those  in  the  previ- 
ous stories.  Nor  less  carefully  and  perfectly  executed  are 
the  decorations  of  the  architraves  and  the  framework  sur- 
rounding these  doors,  among  which  are  fruits  and  festoons 
of  foliage  finished  with  the  accustomed  excellence  of  the 
master. 

In  this  work,  whether  taken  in  detail  or  considered  as  a 
whole,  we  have  proof  of  the  wonders  that  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  fertile  invention  and  practised  ability  of  the 
sculptor,  whether  in  full  relief,  in  half  relief,  or  in  the  ]ow, 
and  lowest  relief  ;  tlie  effect  he  may  produce  in  the  compo- 
sition of  his  work,  by  the  disposition  of  his  figures,  and  by 
variety  of  attitude  in  male  and  female  forms ;  the  rich  ef- 
fects to  be  derived  from  the  judicious  introduction  of  build- 
ings, and  due  attention  to  the  laws  of  perspective,  with  the 
grace  that  results  from  according  their  appropriate  expres- 
sion to  each  sex,  and  to  the  different  ages,  as  we  see  done  in 
this  work,  where,  in  the  old  we  admire  gravity,  and  in  tlie 
young  their  beauty  and  graceful  lightness.  AVlierefore  it 
may  be  truly  affirmed  that  this  work  is  in  all  respects  per- 
fect, and  is  the  most  admirable  production  that  has  ever 
been  seen  in  the  world,  whether  ancient  or  modern.  The 
justice  of  the  praises  bestowed  on  Lorenzo  for  tliis  work 
may  be  inferred  from  the  words  of  Michael  Angelo  Buona- 
rotti,  who,  standing  to  look  at  these  doors,  and  being  asked 
what  he  thought  of  them,  and  whether  they  were  beauti- 
ful, replied  in  these  words :  —  ^'  They  are  so  heautiful, 
that  they  might  fittingly  stand  at  the  gates  of  Paradise/^ 
a  truly  appropriate  tribute,  and  offered  by  him  who  could 
well  judge  of  the  work.  Well  indeed  might  Lorenzo 
complete  his  undertaking  successfully,  since,  from  his 
twentieth  year,  wherein  he  commenced  these  doors,  he 
laboured  at  them  for  forty  years  with  a  patience  and  indus- 


216 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


try  more  than  extreme,  and  beyond  the  power  of  words  to 
express.^'' 

Ghiberti  was  assisted  in  the  completion  and  polishing  of 
this  work,  after  it  had  been  cast,  by  many  artists,  then 
young  men,  who  afterwards  became  excellent  masters  :  by 
Filippo  Brunelleschi,  namely,  by  Masolino  da  Panicale, 
Mccolo  Lamberti,  both  goldsmiths ;  by  Parri  Spinelli,  An- 
tonio Filarete,  Paolo  Uccello,  Antonio  del  PoUaiuolo,  who 
was  then  a  youth,  and  by  many  others,  who,  labouring  to- 
gether at  this  work,  and  holding  much  conference  respect- 
ing it,  as  will  happen  when  people  live  together,  acquired 
practice  and  knowledge,  insomuch  that  they  were  labouring 
for  themselves  no  less  than  for  Lorenzo.^    In  addition  to 

24  The  casting  of  the  second  gate  of  Ghiberti  was  commenced  in  1440 ;  he 
had  received  the  order  in  1425 ;  and  the  whole  was  completed,  gilded,  and 
placed  in  1452,  after  twenty-seven  years  of  labor.  There  are  ten  subjects : 
The  Creation  of  Man ;  The  Creation  of  Woman ;  The  Temptation  of  Eve ; 
The  Expulsion  from  Paradise ;  The  Story  of  Cain  and  Abel ;  The  Story  of 
Noah ;  The  Story  of  Abraham  ;  The  Story  of  Isaac  and  Jacob  ;  The  Story  of 
Joseph ;  Moses,  and  the  Tables  of  the  Law ;  Joshua  before  Jericho  ;  David 
and  Goliath;  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  "Around  these,"  says 
Ghiberti  himself  in  his  commentary,  "  I  have  placed  twenty -four  statuettes  in 
the  cornice,  and  twenty-four  busts  between  the  friezes  [more  exactly  twenty 
statuettes  in  niches  and  four  recumbent  allegorical  figures  of  river  gods]. 
.  .  .  For  the  exterior  frieze  between  the  uprights  and  the  hinges  I  have 
made  a  suitable  ornament  of  leafage,  birds,  and  animals,  and  upon  the  up- 
rights a  finely  worked  shallow  ornamentation." 

M.  Miintz,  in  his  Primitifs,  notes  that  Ghiberti's  statuettes  in  the  bordering 
to  his  reliefs  have  "all  the  importance  of  real  statues  in  their  condensation  of 
grace,  poetry,  and  seduction."  We  may  go  farther  and  say  that  they  possess 
these  qualities  in  a  much  greater  degree  than  do  Lorenzo's  large  statues  of 
Or  San  Michele  ;  the  sculptor  had  indeed,  as  says  M.  Miintz,  "passed  onward 
from  the  study  of  character  and  measure  to  that  of  beauty."  Perkins  in  his 
Tuscan  Sculptors,  and  M.  Miintz  in  his  Life  of  Donatello,  both  emphasize  the 
fact  that  Ghiberti  was  really  a  maker  of  pictures  in  bronze,  "  a  dangerous  in- 
novator," to  be  tolerated  only  because  he  was  a  great  genius  and  because 
his  bronze  pictures  were  so  beautiful  that  they  entitled  him  "  to  be  judged 
by  an  exceptional  standard."  Donatello's  realism  counteracted  what  was 
dangerous  in  Ghiberti,  and  the  former's  "  juster  perception  of  the  true  aims 
of  sculpture  save  it,"  says  Perkins,  "from  being  submerged  by  the  use  of 
means  which  belong  exclusively  to  the  sister  art  of  painting." 

2s  It  seems  to  be  proved  by  Ghiberti's  commentary  that  none  of  these  ex- 
cept Paolo  Uccello  worked  upon  the  second  gates  ;  on  the  other  hand,  Bernardo 
Cennini  and  Benozzo  Gozzoli  did  assist  Lorenzo. 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


217 


the  sum  paid  for  the  work  by  the  consuls,  Lorenzo  Ghiberti 
received  a  good  farm  near  the  Badia  di  Settimo,  as  a  gift 
from  the  Signoria ;  ^  nor  did  any  long  time  elapse  before  he 
was  himself  received  among  the  Signory,  and  honoured  with 
a  place  in  the  supreme  magistracy  of  the  city.^'  On  this  oc- 
casion, therefore,  the  Florentines  deserved  praises  for  their 
gratitude,  as  they  have  well  merited  the  reproach  of  un- 
thankfulness  towards  the  many  excellent  men  with  respect 
to  whom  the  country  has  proved  itself  by  no  means  grate- 
ful. 

After  this  most  stupendous  work,  Lorenzo  undertook  the 
bronze  ornament  of  that  door  of  the  same  church  which  is 
opposite  to  the  Misericordia,  with  those  admirably  beautiful 
decorations  of  foliage  which  he  did  not  survive  to  finish,''* 
being  unexpectedly  overtaken  by  death  when  he  was  mak- 
ing his  arrangements  and  had  already  nearly  completed  the 
model  for  reconstructing  the  door  previously  erected  by 
Andrea  Pisano.  This  model  was  suffered  to  be  lost,  but  I 
saw  it  formerly,  when  I  was  but  a  youth,  in  Borgo  AUegri, 
before  the  descendants  of  Lorenzo  Ghiberti  had  permitted 
it  to  be  ruined. 

Lorenzo  had  a  son  called  Bonaccorso,^^  who  finished  the 
decorations  of  foliage  tlius  left  incomplete  by  his  father, 
with  great  zeal  and  diligence  ;  and  this  ornament  is  one  of 
the  rarest  and  most  beautiful  specimens  of  work  in  bronze 
that  can  possibly  be  seen.  Bonaccorso  died  young,  and  did 
not  produce  so  many  works  as  he  most  probably  would  liave 
done,  seeing  that  the  secret  of  casting  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  work  should  succeed  well  and  present  an  extreme 
delicacy  of  appearance,  remained  to  him,  as  well  as  that  of 

"•Milanesi  quotes  Baldinucci  to  the  effect  that  Ghiberti  himself  paid  for 
this  farm. 

2^  According  to  Del  Migliore,  though  they  were  citizens  and  eligible  to 
office,  neither  Lorenzo  Ghiberti  nor  any  of  his  descendants  ever  became  Prior 
or  held  any  great  position. 

2«His  son  Vittorio  aided  him  in  this  work.    See  also  the  Life  of  Pollajnolo. 

2»  Lorenzo's  son  was  Vittorio  (1417-1490),  a  sculptor;  Bonaccorso  (who  died 
151G),  also  a  sculptor,  was  his  grandson. 


218 


LORENZO  GIIIBEKTI 


perforating  the  metal  in  the  mode  observable  in  the  works 
left  by  Lorenzo,  who,  to  say  nothing  of  his  own  performance, 
bequeathed  many  relics  of  antiquity  to  his  family,  some  in 
marble,  others  in  bronze.  Among  these  was  the  bed  of 
Polycletus,  which  was  a  most  rare  thing  ;  a  leg  of  bronze, 
of  the  size  of  life,  with  certain  heads,  male  and  female,  and 
some  vases,  which  Lorenzo  had  caused  to  be  brought  from 
Greece  at  no  small  cost.  He  also  left  the  torsi  of  many 
figures,  with  a  great  number  of  similar  things,  which  were 
all  dispersed  ;  and,  like  the  property  acquired  by  Lorenzo, 
suffered  to  be  destroyed  and  squandered.  Some  of  these 
antiquities  were  sold  to  Messer  Giovanni  Gaddi,  then 
"  Cherico  di  Camera, ''^  and  among  them  was  the  aforesaid 
bed  of  Polycletus  and  some  other  matters,  which  formed 
the  better  part  of  the  collection. 

Bonaccorso  left  a  son  called  Vittorio,  who  studied  sculpt- 
ure, but  with  very  little  success,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
heads  which  he  executed  in  the  palace  of  the  duke  of 
Gravina,  and  which  are  not  well  done  ;  this  arose  from 
the  fact  that  he  never  devoted  himself  to  his  art  with 
the  love  and  diligence  required  to  ensure  success,  but 
thought  only  of  squandering  the  property  and  possessions 
of  his  father  and  grandfather.  This  Vittorio  ultimately 
repaired  to  Ascoli,  whither  he  had  been  summoned  to  serve 
as  architect  under  Pope  Paul  III,  and  where  he  was  mur- 
dered in  the  night  by  one  of  his  servants,  who  had  planned 
to  rob  him.  Thus  the  family  of  Lorenzo  Ghiberti  be- 
came extinct,  but  not  so  his  fame,  which  will  endure  to  all 
eternity. 

But  let  us  return  to  our  artist,  during  his  lifetime  he 
gave  his  attention  to  various  branches  of  art,  and  took  de- 
light in  painting  and  working  in  glass.  It  was  by  him  that 
the  rose-windows  around  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore  were  made,  one  only  excepted,  that  namely  in  which 
is  represented  Christ  crowning  the  Virgin,  and  this  is  from 
the  hand  of  Donato.  The  three  windows  above  the  princi- 
pal door  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  are  likewise  by  Lorenzo 


LORENZO  GIIIBERTI 


219 


Ghiberti,  with  all  those  of  the  chapels  and  tribunes,^  as  well 
as  the  rose-window  in  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Croce.  This 
master  also  made  a  window  for  the  principal  chapel  of  the 
capitular  church  of  Arezzo  ;  on  it  is  represented  the  Corona- 
tion of  Our  Lady,  with  two  other  figures,  all  which  were 
done  for  Lazzaro  di  Feo  di  Baccio,  a  very  rich  merchant  of 
that  city  ;  but  as  all  these  windows  were  made  of  Venetian 
glass  of  very  dark  colour,  they  tend  rather  to  obscure  than 
to  enlighten  the  buildings  wherein  they  are  constructed. 
Lorenzo  was  appointed  to  assist  Brunellesco,  when  the 
latter  received  the  commission  for  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria 
del  Fiore,  but  this  arrangement  was  afterwards  altered,  as 
will  be  related  in  the  life  of  that  master.  The  same 
Lorenzo  wrote  a  book  in  the  vulgar-tongue,  wherein  he  dis- 
coursed of  many  and  various  matters,  but  in  such  sort  that 
but  little  profit  can  be  derived  from  it.  The  only  thing 
good  that  there  is  in  the  book,  according  to  my  judgment, 
is  the  fact,  that  after  speaking  of  many  ancient  painters, 
more  particularly  of  those  cited  by  Pliny,  he  makes  a  brief 
mention  of  Cimabue,  Giotto,  and  many  others  of  those 
times,  but  this  he  does  with  much  more  brevity  than  was 
fitting,  and  that  for  no  better  reason  than  to  give  himself 
the  opportunity  of  falling  with  a  good  grace  into  discourse 
concerning  himself,  and  enumerating  as  he  does,  with  the 
most  minute  description,  all  his  own  works  one  after  anotlier. 
Nor  will  I  conceal  that  he  seems  to  intimate  that  this  book  is 
made  by  others,  but  in  the  course  of  the  work,  discoursing  of 
himself  (like  a  man  better  versed  in  making  designs,  in  work- 
ing with  his  chisel,  and  in  casting  bronze  than  in  the  weav- 
ing of  stories),  he  speaks  in  the  first  person,  and  says  I 
made,'^  ''I  said,''     I  was  doing,"  and  ''I  was  saying." ^2 

Ghiberti  in  his  commentary  tells  us  that  he  designed  six  round  windows 
for  the  Duomo. 

The  window  made  for  Lazzaro  di  Giovanni  di  Feo  de'  Bracci  has  been  de- 
stroyed. 

32  It  is  amusing  to  find  Vasari  criticising,  in  Ghiberti's  confused  use  of  the 
first  and  second  person,  the  very  same  lack  of  discrimination  from  which  he 
himself  suffers. 


220 


LORENZO  GHIBERTI 


Finally,  having  attained  the  sixty-fourth  year  of  his  life, 
Ghiberti  was  attacked  by  a  violent  and  continuous  fever,  of 
which  he  died,  leaving  an  eternal  memorial  of  his  existence 
in  his  works,  as  well  as  in  the  writings  of  authors  :  he  was 
honourably  interred  in  Santa  Croce.  The  portrait  of  Lo- 
renzo is  on  the  principal  bronze  door  of  San  Giovanni ;  it 
is  seen  in  the  centre  when  the  doors  are  closed,  among  the 
decorations  of  the  border  ;  the  head  is  bald,  and  beside 
this  portrait  of  Ghiberti  is  that  of  Bartoluccio,  his  father  ; 
near  them  are  the  following  words  : — 

"  IiAUREKTn  CIONIS  DI  6HIBEBTIS  MIRA  ABTE  PABRICATUH."  8» 

The  drawings  of  Lorenzo  ^  are  most  excellent,  and  have 

33  Ghiberti  made  his  will  in  1455,  and  probably  died  within  the  twelve  - 
month,  since  we  find  Vittorio  in  the  following  year  working  alone  at  the  gates. 
If  born,  as  stated  by  Milanesi  in  his  Prospetto  cronologico  in  1378,  he  was 
seventy -seven  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

^*  Symonds  in  his  Fine  Arts  (History  of  the  Italian  Renaissance)  says  of 
Ghiberti  that  "  he  came  into  the  world  to  create  a  new  and  inimitable  style  of 
hybrid  beauty."  M.  Muntz  contrasts  him  with  Donatello,  who  concentrated 
his  strength,  and  ''tried  to  solve  the  most  arduous  problems,"  while  Lorenzo, 
scattering  his  strength,  "was  contented  to  please  and  to  enchant."  He  be- 
lieves that  Ghiberti  must  have  been  the  more  popular  artist  of  the  two,  and 
calls  him  "above  all  graceful,  rather  than  powerful."  Symonds  dwells 
upon  the  fact  that  Ghiberti,  though  so  passionate  an  admirer  of  the  Greeks 
that  he  reckoned  time  by  Olympiads,  remained  nevertheless  "  unaffectedly 
natural  and  in  a  true  sense  Christian,"  and  that  "the  paganism  of  the  Re- 
naissance was  a  phrase  with  no  more  meaning  for  him  than  for  that  still  more 
delicate  Florentine  spirit,  Luca  della  Robbia."  To  the  student  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  sculpture  the  figures  of  Ghiberti  upon  his  second  gate  are  phenomenal ; 
at  the  first  glance  one  would  imagine  that  they  had  been  executed  at  a  much 
later  period  of  that  evolution.  They  do  not  at  first  show  the  same  evidence 
of  belonging  to  a  primitive  epoch,  an  epoch  of  struggling  upward  growth,  as 
do  the  works  of  Donatello.  Side  by  side  with  the  angular,  robust  figures  of 
the  latter,  or  the  rounded  boys  and  girls  of  Luca's  organ  tribune,  Ghiberti's 
people  of  the  bronze  gates  are  so  long  and  delicate  and  graceful,  with  a 
certain  character  of  exquisiteness,  that  they  appear  to  belong  rather  to  a 
Praxitelean  than  to  a  Phidian  epoch — to  a  second  rather  than  to  a  first  phase 
of  evolution.  They  are  marvellously  precocious,  pressing  forward  in  advance 
of  their  times,  so  much  that  they  would  have  been  a  dangerous  precedent 
had  not  Donatello,  who  occupied  his  natural  place  in  the  art  evolution,  acted  as 
their  corrective.  They  are  pictorial  rather  than  sculptural,  but  are  so  beauti- 
ful and  so  different  from  the  works  of  other  men  that  Ghiberti  will  always 


LORENZO  GHIBEim 


221 


much  relief,  as  may  be  seen  in  our  book  of  collected  designs, 
from  an  Evangelist  by  his  hand,  as  well  as  from  some  other 
figures  in  chiaro-scuro,  which  are  truly  beautiful.^s 

remain  to  us  as  one  of  the  four  or  five  most  individual  sculptors  of  the  Re- 
naissance, and  as  one  of  the  supreme  masters  of  pictorial  composition,  ifford- 
ing  a  precedent  (thinks  Charles  Blanc)  even  to  Raphael. 

There  are  portrait  heads  of  both  Ghiberti  and  Bartoluccio  upon  the 
second  gate  of  the  Baptistery. 


MASOLINO  DA  PANICALE,  FLORENTINE 
PAINTER 1 

[Bom  1383 ;  died  probably  in  1447.] 

Bibliography.— F.  G.  Knudtzon,  Masaccio  og  den  Florentinske  Maler- 
konst  paa  ha7is  Tid,  Copenhagen,  1875.  Masaccio,  Karl  Woltman,  in  the  Eng- 
lish edition  of  the  Dohme  series,  London,  1880.  A.  H.  Layard,  The  Bran- 
cacci  Chapel  and  Masolino,  Masaccio  and  Filippino  Lippi ;  printed  for  the 
Arundel  Society,  1868.    Zeitschrift,  f.  b.  K.,XI.,  225. 

11HE  happiness  of  those  who  approach  the  highest  point 
of  the  science  in  which  they  labour  to  attain  perfec- 
tion, must  in  my  opinion  be  very  great,  more  espe- 
cially when,  in  addition  to  the  satisfaction  assured  to  all  who 
strive  conscientiously,  they  perceive  themselves  to  derive 
some  benefit  from  their  labours.  Such  men,  without  doubt, 
lead  a  most  peaceful  and  happy  life.  And  if  it  happen  that 
one  whose  days  are  thus  occupied  in  the  upright  endeavour 
to  reach  the  true  end  of  his  existence  and  acquire  the  perfec- 
tion to  which  he  aspires,  should  be  suddenly  surprised  by 
death,  yet  his  memory  does  not  become  wholly  extinct,  if  he 
have  indeed  meritoriously  striven  to  advance  on  the  true 
path.  Therefore  every  one  should  do  his  utmost  to  reach  per- 
fection, for  even  though  he  should  be  cut  off  in  the  midst 
of  his  career,  his  fame  will  be  secured  and  he  will  receive 

^  The  facts  in  the  life  of  Masolino  have  become  so  entangled  with  those  in 
the  career  of  Masaccio  that  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  separate  them,  but  re- 
cent criticism  has  undertaken  the  task  with  enthusiasm  and  some  success, 
aided  especially  by  the  discovery  of  the  frescoes  at  Castiglione  d'Olona. 
Masolino  toward  1423  entered  the  service  of  Filippo  Scolari,  the  Florentine 
adventurer,  and  Obergespann  of  Temeswar,  in  Hungary.  He  stayed  for  some 
time  in  that  country,  and  on  his  return  to  Italy,  towards  1427,  settled  in 
Lombardy,  where  he  probably  died.  Milanesi  has  found  in  the  Burial  Books 
of  Florence  that  a  Tommaso  di  Cristofano  was  buried  October  18,  1440,  in  S. 
Maria  del  Fiore ;  this  may  or  may  not  have  been  Masolino.  In  his  heading 
Milanesi  gives  1447  as  the  probable  date  of  his  decease. 


MASULINO  DA  PANICALE 


223 


praise,  if  not  for  the  works  that  he  has  been  unable  to  finish, 
yet  certainly  for  the  upright  intention  and  earnest  study 
which  will  be  perceived  and  acknowledged  in  the  little  that 
he  may  have  completed.  Masolino  da  Panicale  of  Valdelsa,* 
was  a  disciple  of  Lorenzo  di  Bartoluccio  Ghiberti,^  and  in 
his  early  years  was  a  very  good  worker  in  gold  :  among  all 
those  who  assisted  Lorenzo  in  the  labour  of  the  doors  of  San 
Giovanni,  Masolino  was  the  most  efficient  as  respected  the 
draperies  of  the  figures,  in  the  finishing  of  which  he  dis- 
played great  ability  and  an  excellent  manner  :  in  the  use  of 
the  chisel  also  his  intelligence  and  judgment  was  evinced  in 
the  softness  and  perfection  of  roundness  which  he  imparted 
to  the  human  form,  as  well  as  to  the  vestments.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  Masolino  attached  himself  to  painting,*  and 
to  this  art  his  life  was  ever  afterwards  devoted  :  he  acquired 
the  principles  of  colouring  under  Gherardo  della  Stamina, 
and  having  repaired  to  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
there,  he  painted  the  hall  of  the  ancient  palace  ^  of  the  Or- 
sini  family  in  Monte  Giordano,  while  dwelling  in  that  city. 
But  his  health  being  injured  by  the  air  of  Rome,  which 

'  Tommaso,  called  Masolino  (Little  Tom),  son  of  Cristoforo  di  Fino,  was 
born  at  Colle  di  Val  d'Elsa,  in  1881^,  and  enrolled  January  18,  1423,  in  the 
Arte  de'  Medici  e  Speziali^  the  guild  upon  which  the  lesser  guild  of  painters 
depended.  Milanesi  affirms  these  dates  positively  and  they  are  accepted  by 
other  writers,  but  in  view  of  the  fact  that  Masolino  was  born  in  lo83,  the 
date  given  for  his  matriculation  seems  an  extraordinarily  late  one. 

3  Here  Vasari  evidently  confounded  Masolino  with  Tommaso  di  Cristoforo 
di  Braccio,  a  goldsmith  who  worked  on  Ghiberti's  gates.  Recent  researches 
render  it  probable  that  Masolino  was  apprenticed  to  Stamina. 

*  According  to  M.  Eug.  Miintz  {Les  rri)tii(ifs)  the  first  works  of  Masolino 
known  to  us  (attributed  by  Vasari  to  Masaccio)  are  some  frescoes  in  a 
chapel  of  the  church  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome.  They  represent  four  scenes 
from  the  life  of  an  unknown  saint,  a  Crucifixion  and  stories  from  the  life  of 
Saint  Catherine  of  AJexandria,  an  Annunciation,  the  Evangelists,  and  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church.  Herr  Franz  WickhofF,  Die  F'resken  in  der  Capelle  der 
Heil.  Katharina  in  San  Clemente  zu  Rom  (Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende  Kunst, 
XXIV.  fasc.  12),  says  that  Masolino  was  here  evidently  influenced  by  Pisa- 
nello's  frescoes  in  the  Lateran  (1432),  and  that  therefore  these  works  in  San 
Clemente  postdate  instead  of  antedate  Masolino's  paintings  of  Castiglione 
d'Olona. 

*  These  frescoes  were  long  ago  destroyed.  Vasari  in  another  place  has  cred- 
ited them  to  Tommaso,  called  Giottino. 


224  MASOLINO  DA  PANICALE 

painfully  affected  his  head,  he  returned  to  Florence,  where, 
in  the  church  of  the  Carmine,  he  painted  the  figure  of  San 
Piero  beside  the  chapel  of  the  Crucifixion,  a  work  which  is 
still  to  be  seen  in  that  place.®  This  San  Piero  was  greatly 
commended  by  contemporary  artists,  and  caused  Masolino 
to  receive  a  commission  for  painting  the  chapel  of  the  Bran- 
cacci  family,  in  the  same  church.  Here  he  depicted  stories 
from  the  life  of  St.  Peter,  and  part  of  these  he  completed 
with  equal  zeal  and  success  :  the  four  Evangelists  on  the 
ceiling,  namely,  the  story  of  Christ  calling  Andrew  and 
Peter  from  their  nets,  that  which  depicts  the  repentance  of 
the  latter  for  the  sin  he  had  committed  in  denying  his  mas- 
ter, and  the  preaching  of  the  same  apostle  for  the  conversion 
of  the  Gentiles.  By  Masolino  is  likewise  the  story  repre- 
senting the  shipwreck  of  the  Apostles,  with  that  of  St.  Peter 
raising  his  daughter  Petronilla  from  the  dead,  and  in  this 
he  pourtrayed  the  last-named  apostle  going  with  St.  John 
to  the  temple,  and  finding  the  sick  beggar  in  the  portico, 
whom,  when  he  implored  an  alms,  not  being  able  to  bestow 
either  gold  or  silver,  St.  Peter  liberates  from  his  infirmity 
by  making  the  sign  of  the  cross.  All  the  figures  of  this 
work  are  painted  in  a  very  grand  manner  and  with  much 
grace  :  they  exhibit,  moreover,  great  softness  and  harmony 
in  the  colouring,  with  considerable  force  of  design.  The 
entire  work  was  infinitely  admired  for  much  in  it  that  was 
new,  many  considerations  having  been  kept  in  view  by 
Masolino,  which  were  wholly  foreign  to  the  manner  of 
Giotto  ;  but  this  undertaking  remained  incomplete,  because 
the  master  was  overtaken  by  death. 

8  Destroyed  in  1675. 

'  There  has  been  much  controversy  regarding  the  works  of  Masolino  in  the 
Brancacci  chapel,  especially  since  the  discovery  of  his  authenticated  frescoes 
at  Castiglione  d'Olona.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  comparing  these  two  series 
doubt  the  attribution  of  the  Brancacci  frescoes  to  Masolino,  and  have  assigned 
the  upper  wall  paintings  to  Masaccio.  M.  Miintz,  Woltmann,  and  others  pro- 
nounce unhesitatingly  for  Masolino,  and  the  balance  of  criticism  is  now  de- 
cidedly in  his  favor.  Three  lunettes  have  lost  their  decorations,  which  were 
the  Calling  of  Peter,  Peter's  Denial,  and  the  Barque  of  Peter.  These  frescoes 
of  Masolino,  painted  probably  about  1425,  in  the  Brancacci  chapel,  are,  in  their 


MASOLINO  DA  PANIC  ALE 


225 


Masolino  da  Panicale  was  a  man  of  admirable  genius,  and 
his  works,  which  it  is  manifest  that  he  executed  throughout 
with  infinite  love  and  care,  are  distinguished  by  their  har- 
mony and  facility.  His  too  zealous  study  and  the  fatigues 
to  which  he  perpetually  subjected  himself,  so  weakened  his 
frame  that  confirmed  ill  health  ensued  :  his  life  was  prema- 
turely terminated,  and  the  world  was  cruelly  deprived  of 
this  master  while  he  was  still  but  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 
seven  :  ^  thus  were  cut  short  the  hopes  and  expectations 
which  had  been  conceived  by  all  from  his  labours.  The 
paintings  of  Masolino  da  Panicale  date  about  the  year  1440. 

Paolo  Schiavo,^  who  painted  the  figure  of  the  Virgin  at 
the  corner  of  the  Gori,^'^  took  great  pains  to  imitate  the 

more  developed  technique,  their  more  realistic  drawing,  and  in  their  linear 
perspective,  an  astonishing  advance  upon  anything  by  the  Oiotiesc?U.  Here  art 
entered  the  modern  path  which  Masaccio  was  to  tread  so  soon  and  so  surely,  de- 
veloping these  very  qualities  of  Masolino,  qualities  of  naturalness,  simplicity, 
gravity,  but  departin  ;  from  the  earlier  painter's  woodenness,  and  ennobling  a 
style  which  already  in  Masolino's  best  figures  became  dignified  and  even  stately. 

M.  E.  Miintz,  in  Les  PrimitifH,  says  :  '  'As  Masolino  grows  older  this  seeking 
after  style  is  more  and  more  sacrificed  to  vivacity  of  expression  and  to  dra- 
matic animation."  See  the  frescoes  recently  discovered,  or  rather  uncovered, 
and  freed  from  whitewash  in  the  choir  of  the  Collegiate  Church  of  Castiglione 
d'Olona  in  the  province  of  Como,  between  Tradate  and  Varese.  These  repre- 
sent upon  the  walls  scenes  from  the  acta  of  SS.  Lawrence  and  Stephen,  and 
on  the  vaulting  stories  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin.  In  the  Baptistery  are  the 
acts  of  St.  John,  frescoes  considered  to  be  perhaps  seven  years  later  in  date 
than  those  in  the  church,  and  also  attributed  to  Masolino,  together  with  the 
figures  of  the  four  Evangelists  upon  the  vaulting.  M.  Miintz  praises  espe- 
cially the  episodical  .side  of  these  frescoes,  but  finds  the  representatives  of  the 
Evangelists  and  Fathers  of  the  Church  mannered  and  poor.  According  to 
Milanesi  these  latter  frescoes  of  the  Baptistery  are  dated  1435,  and  the  same 
author  considers  that  the  paintings  of  the  Collegiate  Church  were  executed 
before  1428.  Dr.  Richter  feels  convinced  that  the  Castiglione  d'Olona  fres- 
coes present  precisely  the  same  characteristics  as  those  seen  in  the  wall-paint- 
ings of  the  Brancacci,  which  are  attributed  to  Masolino,  and  he  does  not  notice 
the  growing  sacrifice  of  style  to  expression  which  M.  Miintz  asserts.  The 
Danish  critic,  Knudtzon,  even  declares  boldly  (see  Life  of  Masaccio)  that  the 
frescoes  of  Castiglione  were  executed  before  1423,  antedating  the  Brancacci 
works. 

^  Fifty- seven. 

» Paolo  di  Stefano,  called  Paolo  Schiavo  (by  cognomen  Badaloni),  died  in 
Pisa  in  1478. 
"  The  comer  now  called  Canto  de'  Nelli 
15 


226  MASOLINO  DA  PANICALE 

manner  of  Masolino.  I  have  frequently  examined  the 
works  of  the  latter  very  carefully^  and  find  his  manner  es- 
sentially different  from  that  of  those  who  preceded  him. 
He  imparted  much  dignity  to  his  figures,  with  great  free- 
dom to  the  draperies,  which  he  caused  to  flow  gracefully  in 
rich  folds.  His  heads,  also,  are  greatly  superior  to  those 
painted  by  earlier  masters,  since  he  has  given  more  life  and 
movement  to  the  eyes,  with  increased  beauty  to  many  other 
parts  of  the  human  frame.  He  began  also  to  have  a  clearer 
perception  of  what  is  required  for  the  successful  manage- 
ment of  light  and  shadow  ;  gave  his  figures  considerable  re- 
lief, and  effected  many  very  difficult  foreshortenings.  Of 
this  we  see  an  instance,  among  others,  in  the  Beggar  who 
implores  alms  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  leg  of  whom,  bent  back- 
wards, is  admirably  treated.  Masolino  likewise  began  to 
impart  an  expression  of  sweetness  to  his  female  heads,  with 
a  grace  and  elegance  to  the  draperies  of  young  men,  which 
were  not  attained  by  the  elder  masters,  and  the  perspective 
of  his  drawing  is  tolerably  correct.  But  the  peculiarity 
which  most  distinguished  Masolino  was  the  beauty  of  his 
fresco  paintings  :  these  he  executed  most  admirably,  the 
colours  being  so  delicately  blended  and  harmonized,  that 
his  carnations  *  have  all  the  softness  which  it  is  possible  to 
imagine ;  insomuch  that  if  he  had  possessed  the  power  of 
drawing  perfectly,  as  he  most  probably  would  have  done  had 
he  been  granted  a  longer  life,  this  master  would  have  de- 
served to  be  numbered  among  the  best ;    his-  works  being 

*  Carnagioni  means  flesh  tones  and  not  carnations. 

Until  within  a  few  years  Masaccio  was  held  to  be  an  absolutely  phenome- 
nal painter,  appearing  like  a  comet  suddenly  and  unannounced.  This  situa- 
tion, incompatible  with  the  history  of  art,  which  is  the  record  of  an  evolution, 
has  been  resolved  by  recent  research  and  we  now  have  as  links  in  a  contin- 
uous chain,  Antonio  Veneziano,  who  is  still  a  Giottesco^  then  Gherardo  Star- 
nina  (1354-1408),  who  prepares  the  way  for  his  great  pupil,  and  finally  Maso- 
lino,  the  direct  genesis  of  Masaccio.  With  Masolino  begins  the  series  of  those 
grand  though  wooden  figures  which  appear  in  the  pictures  of  Paolo  Uccello, 
Andrea  dal  Castagno,  and  Piero  della  FranceBca^  figures  a  whole  world 
removed  in  their  science  of  design  from  the  people  of  the  Giotteschi,  yet  still 
somewhat  rigid,  staring,  and  always  imperturbably  solemn.     These  painters 


MASOLINO  DA  PANICALE 


227 


execated  gracefully,  in  a  grand  manner,  with  softness  and 
harmony  in  the  colouring,  and  much  relief  and  force  in  the 
drawing,  although  this  last  is  not  in  all  respects  perfect. 

are  the  naturalists,  and  their  science  of  design  and  of  linear  perspective  unites 
with  grandeur  of  sentiment  in  Piero  della  Francesca,  and  in  Masaccio  com- 
bines with  nobility  of  feeling,  sense  of  color,  atmosphere,  and  lofty  power 
of  composition,  to  produce  the  greatest  painter  between  Giotto  and  Raphael. 

The  portrait  of  Masolino  is  believed  to  be  in  the  fresco  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  John  Healing  the  Sick  (in  the  Brancacci  chapel)  ;  it  is  the  figure  in  the 
red  cap  to  the  right  of  St.  Peter.  Vasari  used  it  to  illustrate  his  biography 
of  the  painter. 


MASACCIO,  PAINTER  OF  SAK  GIOVANNI  DI  VAL. 

DARNO 1 


[Bom  1401 ;  died  1428.] 


Bibliography. — F.  G.  Knudtzon,  Masaccio  og  den  Florentinske  Malerkonst 
paa  hans  TicZ, Copenhagen,  1875.  K.  Woltmann,  Masaccio,  in  tiie  Dohme  serien. 
Vte.  Delaborde,  Les  (Envres  et  la  Maidere  de  Masaccio,  Paris,  1876.  A.  HL 
Layard,  The  Brancacci  Chapel,  Arundel  Society  Publication,  London,  1868. 
Thomas  Patch,  The  Life  of  Masaccio,  in  English  and  Italian,  Florence,  1770- 
1772.  P.  Santi  MaLtei,  Guida  del  Carmine,  Florence,  1869.  Zeitschrift  f. 
b.  K.  XL  225;  XII.  175,  Zahn-Liibke  and  A.  von  Reumont,  Jahrhiicher  fiir 
Knnstwissemchaft,  1869-1870.  Ernst  Forster,  Oeschichte  der  Italienuchen 
Kunst.,  1870.    G.  Milanesi,  Oiornale  storico  degli  Archivi  Toscani,  IV.  193. 


HEN  nature  has  called  into  existence  a  genius  of 


surpassing  excellence  in  any  vocation,  it  is  not  her 


custom  to  leave  him  alone  :  on  the  contrary,  she 
for  the  most  part  gives  life  to  another,  created  at  the  same 
time  and  in  the  same  locality,  whence  the  emulation  of 
each  is  excited  and  they  mutually  serve  as  stimulants 
one  to  the  other.  And  this,  in  addition  to  the  great  ad- 
vantage derived  from  it  by  them  who,  thus  united,  make 
their  efforts  in  common,  has  the  further  effect  of  awaken- 
ing the  minds  of  those  who  come  after  them,  and  who 
are  excited  to  labour  with  the  utmost  zeal  and  industry 
for  the  attainment  of  that  glorious  reputation  and  those 
honours  which  they  daily  hear  ascribed  to  their  distin- 
guished predecessors  ;  and  that  this  is  true  we  find  proved 
by  the  fact  that  Florence  produced  at  one  and  the  same  time 
Filippo,  Donato,  Lorenzo,  Paolo  Uccello,  and  Masaccio, 
each  most  excellent  in  his  peculiar  walk,  and  all  contribut- 
ing to  banish  the  coarse  and  hard  manner  which  had  pre^ 


»  Tommaso  di  Ser  Giovanni  di  Simone  Guidi,  called  Masaccio. 


MASACCIO 


229 


vailed  up  to  the  period  of  their  existence  ;  nor  was  this  all, 
for  the  minds  of  those  who  succeeded  these  masters  were  so 
effectually  inflamed  by  their  admirable  works,  that  the 
modes  of  production  in  these  arts  were  brought  to  that  gran- 
deur and  height  of  perfection  which  were  made  manifest  in 
the  performances  of  our  own  times.  We  then,  of  a  truth, 
have  the  greatest  obligation  to  those  masters  who  by  their 
labours  first  taught  us  the  true  path  by  which  to  attain  the 
highest  summit  of  perfection  ;  and  as  touching  the  good 
manner  in  painting,  most  especially  are  we  indebted  to 
Masaccio,'"^  since  it  was  he  who,  eager  for  the  acquirement  of 
fame,  first  attained  the  clear  perception  that  painting  is  no 
other  than  the  close  imitation,  by  drawing  and  colouring 
simply,  of  all  the  forms  presented  by  nature,  exhibiting 
them  as  they  are  produced  by  her,  and  that  whosoever  shall 
most  perfectly  effect  this,  may  be  said  to  have  most  nearly 
approached  the  summit  of  excellence.^  The  conviction  of 
this  truth  formed  by  Masaccio  was  the  cause,  I  say,  of  his 
attaining  to  so  much  knowledge  by  means  of  perpetual 
study,  that  he  may  be  accounted  among  the  first  by  whom 
art  was  in  a  great  measure  delivered  from  rudeness  and 
hardness  :  he  it  was  who  taught  the  method  of  overcoming 
many  difficulties,  and  led  the  way  to  the  adoption  of  those 
beautiful  attitudes  and  movements  never  exhibited  by  any 
painter  before  his  day,  while  he  also  imparted  a  life  and 
force  to  his  figures  with  a  certain  roundness  and  relief, 
which  render  them  truly  characteristic  and  natural.  Pos- 
sessing extreme  rectitude  of  judgment,  Masaccio  perceived 
that  all  figures  not  sufficiently  foreshortened  to  appear 
standing  firmly  on  the  plane  whereon  they  are  placed,  but 

2  No  painter  has  been  the  subject  of  more  controversy  than  Masaccio. 
Vasari's  life  is  full  of  contradictions,  and  even  the  most  recent  critics  differ  in 
their  attributions  of  his  various  w^orks. 

3  Leonardo  da  Vinci  seems  to  have  been  the  first  one  to  point  out  the  merits 
of  Masaccio.  See  The  Literary  Works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  by  Dr.  Richter, 
I.  332.  The  earliest  mention  of  Masaccio  is  in  a  MS.  notice  of  the  celebrated 
Florentines  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  the  latter  was  first  referred  to  by  Mila- 
nesi,  who  attributed  it  to  Antonio  Manetti. 


230 


MASACCIO 


reared  up  on  the  points  of  their  feet,  must  needs  be  deprived 
of  all  grace  and  excellence  in  the  most  important  essentials, 
and  that  those  who  so  represent  them  prove  themselves  un- 
acquainted with  the  art  of  foreshortening.  It  is  true  that 
Paolo  Uccello  had  given  his  attention  to  this  subject,  and 
had  done  something  in  the  matter,  which  did  to  a  certain 
extent  lessen  the  difficulty ;  but  Masaccio,  differing  from 
him  in  various  particulars,  managed  his  foreshortenings 
with  much  greater  ability,  exhibiting  his  mastery  of  this 
point  in  every  kind  and  variety  of  view,  and  succeeding 
better  than  any  artist  had  done  before  him.  He  moreover 
imparted  extreme  softness  and  harmony  to  his  paintings, 
and  was  careful  to  have  the  carnations  *  of  the  heads  and 
other  nude  parts  in  accordance  with  the  colours  of  the 
draperies,  which  he  represented  with  few  and  simple  folds, 
as  they  are  seen  in  the  natural  object.  This  has  been  of  the 
utmost  utility  to  succeeding  artists,  and  Masaccio  deserves 
to  be  considered  the  inventor  of  that  manner,  since  it  may 
be  truly  affirmed  that  the  works  produced  before  his  time 
should  be  called  paintings  ;  but  that  his  performance,  when 
compared  with  those  works,  might  be  designated  life,  truth, 
and  nature. 

The  birth-place  of  this  master  was  Oastello  San  Giovanni, 
in  the  Valdarno,  and  it  is  said  that  some  figures  are  still  to 
be  seen  there  which  were  executed  by  Masaccio  in  his  ear- 
liest childhood.^  He  was  remarkably  absent  and  careless  of 
externals,  as  one  who,  having  fixed  his  whole  mind  and 
thought  on  art,  cared  little  for  himself  or  his  personal  in- 
terests, and  meddled  still  less  with  the  affairs  of  others  ;  he 
could  by  no  means  be  induced  to  bestow  his  attention  on 
the  cares  of  the  world  and  the  general  interests  of  life,  inso- 
much that  he  would  give  no  thought  to  his  clothing,  nor 

*  See  text  note  page  226. 

*  Masaccio' s  father  was  the  notary  Ser  Giovanni  di  Simone  Guidi.  As 
Masaccio  was  born  on  the  feast  of  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle  he  was  named 
Tommaso.  In  the  year  1421,  or  possibly  1423,  Masaccio  was  enrolled  in  the 
guild  of  the  speziali,  or  druggists,  in  Florence,  and  in  1424  in  the  guild  of 
painters. 


MASACCIO 


231 


was  he  ever  wont  to  require  payment  from  his  debtors, 
until  he  was  first  reduced  to  the  extremity  of  want ;  and  for 
all  this,  instead  of  being  called  Tommaso,  which  was  his 
name,  he  received  from  every  one  the  cognomen  of  Masac- 
^  cio/  by  no  means  for  any  vice  of  disposition,  since  he  was 
goodness  itself,  but  merely  from  his  excessive  negligence 
and  disregard  of  himself ;  for  he  was  always  so  friendly  to 
all,  so  ready  to  oblige  and  do  service  to  others,  that  a  bet- 
ter or  kinder  man  could  not  possibly  be  desired. 

Masaccio's  first  labours  in  art  were  commenced  at  the  time 
when  Masolino  da  Panicale  was  working  at  the  chapel  ^  of 
the  Brancacci,  in  the  church  of  the  Carmine,  at  Florence  : 
and  he  sought  earnestly  to  follow  in  the  track  pursued  by 
Donato  and  Filippo  Brunelleschi  (although  their  branch  of 
art,  being  sculpture,  was  different  from  his  own),  his  efforts 
being  perpetually  directed  to  the  giving  his  figures  a  life 
and  animation  which  should  render  them  similar  to  nature. 
The  outlines  and  colouring  of  Masaccio  are  so  different 
from  those  of  the  masters  preceding  him,  that  his  works 
may  be  safely  brought  in  comparison  with  the  drawing  and 
colouring  of  any  produced  in  later  times.  Studious  and 
persevering  in  his  labours,  this  artist  successfully  coped 
with  the  difficulties  of  perspective,  which  he  overcame  most 
admirably  and  with  true  artistic  skill,  as  may  be  seen  in  a 
story  representing  Christ  curing  a  man  possessed  by  a 
demon,  which  comprises  a  number  of  small  figures  and  is 

^  Big,  awkward,  stupid,  ugly,  or  hateful  Tom,  according  to  the  degree  of  dis- 
approval which  was  expressed.  Mdso  is  obtained  from  Tommaso,  which  is 
clipped  of  its  first  syllable.  The  name  of  Masolino  is  also  derived  from  Tom- 
maso, and  conveys  the  idea  of  endearment ;  literally  it  is  "  Little  Tom." 

«  It  was  believed  that  Masolino  and  Masaccio  were  born  almost  at  the  same 
time ;  recent  researches  prove  that  Masolino  sufficiently  antedated  Masaccio 
to  have  left  pictures  for  the  latter  to  complete,  and  to  have  set  him  the  exam- 
ple of  somewhat  earlier  work.  There  is  much  controversy  as  to  whether 
Masaccio  was  the  pupil  of  Masolino.  Whether  the  two  artists  can  or  cannot 
be  proved  to  have  occupied  the  direct  relation  of  master  and  pupil  is  still  an 
open  question  ;  if,  however,  Masolino  jjainted  at  all  in  the  Brancacci  chapel,  he 
became  perforce  and  by  his  chronological  relation  to  Masaccio  tlie  teacher  of 
the  latter. 


232 


MASACCIO 


now  in  the  possession  of  Ridolfo  del  Ghirlandajo.'^  In  this 
work  are  buildings  beautifully  drawn  in  perspective,  and  so 
treated  that  the  inside  is  seen  at  the  same  time,  the  artist 
having  taken  the  view  of  these  buildings  not  as  presented 
in  front,  but  as  seen  in  the  sides  and  angles,  to  the  great  in-  ^ 
crease  of  the  difficulty.^  Masaccio  gave  much  more  atten- 
tion than  had  ever  been  bestowed  by  previous  masters  to 
the  foreshortening  of  his  figures  and  the  treatment  of  the 
naked  form  :  he  had  great  facility  of  handling,  and  his  fig- 
ures, as  we  have  said,  were  of  the  utmost  simplicity.  There 
is  a  picture  in  distemper  by  this  master,  representing  Our 
Lady  reposing  in  the  lap  of  St.  Anna,  and  holding  the 
divine  Child  in  her  arms  :  it  is  now  in  Sant'  Ambrogio,  in 
Florence,  in  the  chapel  which  stands  next  to  the  door  lead- 
ing to  the  parlour  of  the  nuns.^  In  the  church  of  St. 
Nicholas,  beyond  the  Arno,  is  also  a  picture  by  Masaccio  : 
it  is  in  distemper  and  represents  the  Annunciation,  with  a 
house  and  many  columns,  admirably  painted  in  perspective. 
The  design  and  colouring  are  alike  perfect,  and  the  whole 
is  so  managed  that  the  colonnade  gradually  recedes  from 
view  in  a  manner  which  proves  Masaccio's  knowledge  of 
perspective.^^ 

In  the  Abbey  of  Florence,  Masaccio  painted  a  fresco  on  a 
pillar  opposite  to  one  of  those  which  support  the  arch  of 
the  high  altar  ;  this  represents  St.  Ivo  of  Brittany,  whom 
the  master  figures  as  standing  within  a  niche,  that  the  feet 
might  appear  duly  foreshortened  to  the  spectator  viewing  it 
from  below  :  a  thing  which  obtained  him  no  small  commen- 
dation, as  not  having  been  so  successfully  practised  by  other 
masters.  Beneath  St.  Ivo,  and  on  the  cornice  below,  is  a 
crowd  of  beggars,  widows,  and  orphans,  to  whom  the  saint 
affords  help  in  their  necessity.      In  the  church  of  Santa 

''  The  fate  of  these  figures  is  unknown. 

*  He  advanced  greatly,  not  only  in  the  practice  of  linear  perspective,  but 
also  in  that  of  atmospheric  perspective. 
9  Now  in  the  Florentine  Academy. 

This  picture  has  disappeared. 
"  Destroyed  in  the  modernizing  of  the  church. 


MASACOIO 


233 


Maria  Novella  there  is  likewise  a  fresco,  painted  by  Masac- 
cio  ;  it  represents  the  Trinity,  with  the  Virgin  on  one 
side,  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist  on  the  other,  who  are  in 
contemplation  of  Christ  crucified.  This  picture  is  over 
the  altar  of  St.  Ignatius,  and  on  the  side  walls  are  two 
figures,  supposed  to  be  the  portraits  of  those  who  caused 
the  fresco  to  be  painted  ;  but  they  are  little  seen,  having 
been  concealed  by  some  gilded  decorations  appended  over 
them.  But  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  part  of  this  work, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  excellence  of  the  figures,  is  the  coved 
ceiling,  painted  in  perspective,  and  divided  into  square 
compartments,  with  a  rosette  in  each  compartment ;  the 
foreshortening  is  managed  with  so  much  ability,  and  the 
whole  is  so  judiciously  treated,  that  the  surface  has  all  the 
appearance  of  being  perforated. 

In  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  in  a  chapel 
near  the  side  door  which  leads  towards  San  Giovanni,  is  a 
picture  painted  by  Masaccio,  and  representing  the  Madonna, 
with  Santa  Caterina,  and  San  Giuliano.  On  the  predella 
are  various  stories  from  the  life  of  Santa  Caterina,  the 
figures  being  very  small ;  with  that  of  San  Giuliano  killing 
his  father  and  mother.  The  Birth  of  Christ  is  also  depicted 
here  with  that  simplicity  and  life-like  truth  which  were 
peculiar  to  the  manner  of  this  master. ^-^  In  Pisa,  moreover, 
and  in  one  of  the  chapels  in  the  church  of  the  Carmine,  is 
a  picture  by  this  master,  representing  Our  Lady  with  the 
Child,  and  at  their  feet  are  angels  sounding  instruments  of 
music  ;  one  of  whom  is  giving  the  most  rapt  attention  to 
the  harmony  he  is  producing.  St.  Peter  and  St.  John  the 
Baptist  are  on  one  side  of  the  Virgin,  with  San  Giuliano 
and  San  Niccolo  on  the  other.  These  figures  are  all  full  of 
truth  and  animation.    On  the  predella  beneath,  are  stories 

12  The  work  was  for  a  long  time  concealed  under  a  picture  by  Vasari,  which 
has  been  removed.  The  work  of  Masaccio  has  been  restored,  and  may  still  be 
seen  in  Santa  Maria  Novella  upon  the  interior  west  wall  near  the  main  door  i 
its  authenticity  has  been  questioned. 

"  These  works  have  all  perished. 


234 


MASACCIO 


from  the  lives  of  the  above-named  saints  in  small  figures,^'* 
and  in  the  centre  of  these  is  the  Adoration  of  Christ  by  the 
Magi.  This  part  of  the  work  presents  horses  full  of  life, 
and  so  beautiful  that  nothing  better  could  be  desired.  The 
persons  composing  the  court  of  the  three  kings  are  clothed 
in  different  vestments  customary  at  that  time  ;  and  over  all, 
as  a  completion  to  the  work,  are  various  saints,  in  several 
compartments,  placed  around  a  crucifix.  It  is  moreover 
believed  that  the  figure  of  a  saint,  wearing  the  robes  of  a 
bishop,  and  painted  in  fresco,  in  the  same  church,  beside 
the  door  which  leads  into  the  convent,  is  also  by  the  hand  of 
Masaccio  ;  but  I  am  fully  convinced  that  this  is  the  work  of 
Masaccio's  disciple,  Fra  Filippo. 

Having  returned  from  Pisa  to  Florence,  Masaccio  there 
painted  a  picture,  which  is  now  in  the  Palla  Rucellai 
palace  :  it  presents  two  naked  figures,  male  and  female,  of 
the  size  of  life  :  but  not  finding  himself  at  his  ease  in  Flor- 
ence,^® and  stimulated  by  his  love  and  zeal  for  art,  the 
master  resolved  to  proceed  to  Rome,  that  he  might  there 
learn  to  surpass  others,  and  this  he  effected.  In  Rome 
Masaccio  acquired  high  reputation,  and  in  a  chapel  of  the 
church  of  San  Clemente,^^  he  painted  a  Crucifixion  in  fresco, 
with  the  thieves  on  their  crosses,  and  also  stories  from  the 
life  of  St.  Catherine  the  martyr.    This  work  he  executed 

"  Dal  Morrona,  quoted  by  Milanesi,  declares  that  these  pictures  have  per- 
ished ;  but  three  panels  in  the  Berlin  Gallery  are  believed  by  Dr.  Bode  and 
Herr  Von  Fabriczy  to  be  from  this  predella.  They  are :  The  Adoration  of  the 
Magi,  the  Crucifixion  of  Peter,  and  the  Decollation  of  St.  John.  They  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  Capponi  family  in  Florence,  and  are,  if  genuine,  the 
only  known  panels  by  this  master. 

The  fate  of  this  picture  is  unknown. 

18  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  consider  that  it  was  the  plague  which 
drove  Masaccio  out  of  Florence. 

"  These  frescoes,  which  still  exist,  have  been  attributed  to  Giotto  (!),  Masac- 
cio, and  Masolino.  Knudtzon,  and  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  refer  them  to  Ma- 
saccio. Still  later  criticism,  with  which  M.  Miintz  and  Dr.  Richter  concur, 
assigns  them  to  Masolino  of  Panicale.  (See  the  life  of  the  latter.)  These  fres- 
coes were  probably  executed  between  1411  and  1420  ;  now  during  this  time 
the  cardinalate  of  San  Cleraente  was  in  the  possession  of  Branda  da  Castig- 
lione,  who  was  the  patron  of  Masolino  at  Castiglione  d'Olona. 


MASACCIO 


235 


for  the  cardinal  of  San  Clemente.  He  likewise  painted 
many  pictures  in  distemper ;  but  in  the  troubled  times  of 
Rome  these  have  all  been  destroyed  or  lost.  There  is  one 
remaining  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  in  a 
small  chapel  near  the  sacristy,  wherein  are  four  saints  so 
admirably  done  that  they  seem  rather  to  be  executed  in  re- 
lief than  on  the  plain  surface  :  in  the  midst  of  these  is 
Santa  Maria  della  Neve.^^  The  portrait  of  Pope  Martin, 
taken  from  nature,  is  also  by  this  master  :  the  pontiff  is 
represented  holding  a  spade  in  his  hand,  with  which  he  is 
tracing  out  the  foundations  of  the  church  ;  near  the  pope 
stands  the  figure  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund  II.  I  was  one 
day  examining  that  work  with  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti, 
when  he  praised  it  very  highly,  remarking  at  the  same  time 
that  the  two  personages  depicted  had  both  lived  in  Masac- 
cio's  day.  Whilst  this  master  was  in  Rome  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  adorn  the  walls  of  the  church  of  San  Giovanni 
in  that  city,  Pisanello  and  Gentile  da  Fabriano  being  also 
employed  by  Pope  Martin  to  decorate  the  walls  of  the  same 
edifice  with  their  paintings.^  But  Masaccio  having  received 
intelligence  that  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  from  whom  he  liad  re- 
ceived favour  and  protection,  had  been  recalled  from  exile,2i 
again  repaired  to  Florence;  tliere,  Masolino  da  Panicale 
being  dead,  Masaccio  was  appointed  to  continue  the  paint- 
ings of  the  Brancacci  chapel,22  in  the  church  of  the  Car- 
is  It  is  not  definitely  known  whether  all  these  works  should  be  referred  to 
Masaccio's  first  or  second  visit  to  Rome. 

'9  M.  Miintz  {Les  Primitifs)  claims  that  two  pictures  in  the  Museum  of 
Naples  (one  of  which  has  been  photographed  with  the  attribution  to  Gentile 
da  Fabriano)  are  certainly  identical  with  the  pictures  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore  mentioned  by  Vasari.  Milanesi  affirming  that  Masaccio  was  dead  at  the 
time  that  Sigismondo  was  crowned  in  Rome,  attributes  the  pictures  painted 
in  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore  to  Arcangelo  di  Cola  da  Camerino. 

This  collaboration  is  doubtful.  See  M.  Mimtz,  Les  Arts  d  la  Cour  des 
Popes. 

This  is  an  error.  Cosmo  did  not  return  from  exile  until  1434,  or  after  the 
death  of  Masaccio. 

The  problem  of  whether  Masolino  or  Masaccio  painted  the  upper  frescoes 
of  the  Brancacci  chapel  is  a  puzzling,  interesting,  and  important  one.  If  the 
former  did,  we  have  in  him  a  direct  and  satisfactory  genesis  of  Masaccio,  and, 


236 


MASACCIO 


mine,  left  unfinished,  as  we  have  said,  by  the  death  of 
Masolino.^  Before  entering  on  this  work,  our  artist 
painted,  as  if  by  way  of  specimen,  and  to  show  to  what  ex- 

as  art  is  evolution,  such  a  genesis  seems  absolutely  necessary.  Most  of  the 
advanced  critics  appear  ready  to  accept  this  work  as  Masolino's,  and  thus  to 
account  for  Masaccio  and  for  one  of  the  three  greatest  steps  made  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  painting.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  are  almost  the  only  opponents 
to  Masolino's  authorship  in  the  Brancacci  frescoes.  They  claim,  first,  that  these 
latter  differ  widely  from  Masolino's  authenticated  frescoes  at  Castiglione ; 
secondly,  that  the  difference  between  The  Cure  at  the  Temple  Gate  (accred- 
ited to  Masolino)  and  the  Tribute  Money  (by  Masaccio)  does  not  infer  more 
rapid  progress  than  would  be  quite  possible  to  one  and  the  same  artist,  develop- 
ing as  he  advanced  in  his  work.  They  give  as  an  example  Raphael's  Dispute 
over  the  Sacrament  and  Liberation  of  Peter,  claiming  that  the  development 
and  increased  largeness  of  style  in  the  latter  here  equal  the  progress  seen  in 
the  Brancacci  frescoes.  This  does  not  seem  a  wholly  successful  example. 
The  Dispute  and  the  Liberation  are  more  like  each  other  than  are  the  Crip- 
ple's Cure  and  the  Tribute  Money.  On  the  other  hand  they  argue  well  in 
affirming  that  the  nude  in  the  three  frescoes.  The  Fall  (Masolino),  the  Ex- 
pulsion (Masaccio),  and  the  Baptism  (Masaccio),  is  only  the  regular  develop- 
ment in  three  stages  of  what  would  be  quite  possible  to  the  same  artist.  But 
Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  also  attribute  to  Masaccio  those  frescoes  in 
San  Clemente  at  Rome  which  so  greatly  suggest  the  technique  of  Masolino  as 
shown  at  Castiglione.  Comparison  of  the  Castiglione  and  Brancacci  frescoes 
will  show  that  if  there  is  a  stately  solemnity  in  the  latter  not  found  in  the 
former,  there  are,  nevertheless,  resemblances  of  a  most  striking  character,  and 
in  comparing  the  figure  which  stands  at  the  right  of  Herod's  table  (Castig- 
lione) with  the  two  young  Florentines  in  the  Cripple's  Cure,  it  is  difficult  not 
to  accept  the  opinion  of  M.  Miintz,  M.  Lafen,estre,  and  many  modern  critics, 
that  the  Curing  of  the  Cripple,  the  Raising  of  Tabitha,  and  the  frescoes  of  Cas- 
tiglione are  by  one  and  the  same  man.  One  of  the  most  formidable  opponents 
of  the  views  of  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  is  the  Danish  writer  Knudt- 
zon,  who  brings  forward  a  new  chronological  arrangement.  He  states  that 
Masolino  painted  the  frescoes  in  the  choir  of  the  church  at  Castiglione  before 
the  year  1423,  or  before  he  was  admitted  to  the  Florentine  guild.  Masolino 
was  engaged  on  the  Brancacci  chapel  in  1425  and  1427-28,  therefore  the  finer 
frescoes  in  Florence  would  be  more  recent  than  the  frescoes  at  Castiglione, 
which  are  somewhat  feebler.  Herr  Forster  very  ingeniously  hit  upon  the  de- 
vice of  assuming  that  there  were  two  artists  of  the  name  of  Masolino,  one 
born  in  1383,  who  worked  at  Castiglione  d'Olona,  and  the  other,  born  in  1403, 
who  worked  with  Masaccio  in  the  Brancacci  ;  but  as  Herr  Woltmann  remarks, 
there  is  always  something  improbable  in  such  doubling  of  names,  an  expedi- 
ent which  in  the  history  of  Greek  art  has  generally  had  to  be  abandoned. 
See  Knudtzon's  Masaccio,  Forster's  Geschichte  der  Ttalienische?i  Kunst.^ 
and  Woltmann's  Masaccio.  Herr  Thausing  also  disputes  the  views  of  Messrs. 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  in  the  ZeitscJirift  f.  b.  Ktmst.^  XI.  335. 
'■•^  Masolino  outlived  Masaccio  many  years. 


MASACCIO 


237 


tent  he  had  ameliorated  his  art,  that  figure  of  St.  Paul  ^ 
which  stands  near  the  place  of  the  bell-ropes  ;  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  master  displayed  great  excellence  in  this  work 
for  the  figure  *  of  the  saint,  which  is  the  portrait  of  Bartolo 
di  Angiolino  Angiolini,  taken  from  the  life,  has  something 
in  it  so  impressive,  and  is  so  beautiful  and  life-like,  that  it 
seems  to  want  nothing  but  speech  ;  insomuch  that  he  who 
has  not  known  St.  Paul  has  but  to  look  at  this  picture, 
when  he  will  at  once  behold  the  noble  deportment  of  him 
who  conjoined  the  Eoman  culture  and  eloquence  with  that 
invincible  force  which  distinguished  the  exalted  and  devout 
character  of  this  apostle,  whose  every  care  and  thought 
were  given  to  the  affairs  of  the  faith.  In  this  picture 
Masaccio  also  afforded  further  proof  of  his  mastery  over  the 
difficulties  of  foreshortening  :  the  powers  of  this  artist  as 
regards  that  point  were  indeed  truly  wonderful,  as  may  be 
seen  even  now  in  the  feet  of  this  apostle,  where  he  has  over- 
come the  difficulty  in  a  manner  that  may  well  be  admired, 
when  we  consider  the  rude  ancient  fashion  of  placing  all  the 
figures  on  the  points  of  their  feet ;  and  this  manner  was 
persisted  in  even  to  his  day,  not  liaving  been  fully  corrected 
by  the  older  artists  ;  he  it  was  who  (earlier  than  any  other 
master)  brought  this  point  of  art  to  the  perfection  which  it 
has  attained  in  our  own  times. 

AVhile  Masaccio  was  employed  on  this  work,  it  chanced 
that  the  aforesaid  church  of  the  Carmine  was  consecrated,'^ 
and  in  memory  of  that  event  Masaccio  painted  the  whole 
ceremony  of  the  consecration  as  it  had  occurred,  in  chiaro- 
scuro, over  the  door  within  the  cloister  which  leads  into  the 
convent.^^    In  this  work  which  was  in     Terra-verde,''  the 

*  The  Italian  word  testa  means  head. 

2*  The  St.  Paul  was  painted  on  a  pilaster  of  the  Capella  de'  Serragli.  This 
figure,  according  to  Bottari,  was  destroyed  in  1675,  when  the  Andrea  Corsini 
chapel  was  begun. 

Consecrated  April  19,  1433,  by  Archbishop  Amerigo  Corsini. 

2«  Bocchi  in  Delle  Bellezze  di  Firenze,  Edition  of  1671,  p.  387,  states  that  the 
work  was  not  destroyed  but  had  been  concealed  by  a  wall  built  during  some  al- 
terations in  the  seventeenth  century.  Mr.  Kirkup,  of  whom  we  have  spoken  in 
the  life  of  Giotto,  was  convinced  that  this  work  lay  under  the  whitewash.  He 


238 


MASACCIO 


muster  painted  the  portraits  of  a  great  number  of  the  citi- 
zens who  make  part  of  the  procession,  clothed  in  hoods  and 
mantles  ;  among  these  figures  were  those  of  Filippo  di  Ser 
Brunellesco,  in  zoccoli/'^' Donatello,  Masolino  da  Pani- 
cale,  who  had  been  his  master,  Antonio  Brancacci,^  for 
whom  it  was  that  the  above-mentioned  chapel  was  painted, 
Niccolo  da  Uzzano,  Giovanni  di  Bicci  de'  Medici^  and  Bar- 
tolommeo  Valori,  all  of  whose  portraits,  painted  by  the  same 
artist,  are  also  in  the  house  of  Simon  Corsi,  a  Florentine 
gentleman.^  Masaccio  likewise  placed  the  portrait  of  Lo- 
renzo Ridolfi,  who  was  then  ambassador  from  the  Florentine 
republic  to  the  republic  of  Venice,  among  those  of  the  pict- 
ure of  the  consecration  ;  and  not  only  did  he  therein  depict 
the  above-named  personages  from  the  life,  but  the  door  of 
the  convent  is  also  pourtrayed  as  it  stood,  with  the  porter 
holding  the  keys  in  his  hand.  This  work  has,  of  a  truth, 
much  in  it  that  is  very  excellent,  Masaccio  having  found 
means  to  marshal  his  figures  so  admirably  well  on  the  level 
space  of  that  piazza,  in  ranges  of  five  or  six  in  a  file,  and 
they  are  gradually  diminished  to  the  eye  with  such  judg- 
ment and  truth,  of  proportion,  that  it  is  truly  wonderful. 
There  is  also  to  be  remarked  that  he  has  had  the  fore- 
thought to  make  these  men  not  all  of  one  size,  but  differing, 
as  in  life ;  insomuch  that  one  distinguishes  the  short  and 
stout  man  from  the  tall  and  slender  figures,  as  one  would  if 
they  were  living.  The  feet  of  all  are  planted  firmly  on  the 
plane  they  occupy,  and  the  foreshortening  of  the  files  is  so 
perfect  that  they  could  not  look  otherwise  in  the  actual  life.^ 

obtained  permission  to  remove  a  portion  of  this  and  found  the  fresco,  which 
however  is  almost  wholly  effaced.  One  of  the  figures  is  supposed  to  represent 
Giovanni  de'  Medici  (1360-1429).  Layard  in  his  work  on  the  Brancacci  chapel 
(1869)  denied  that  the  fresco  uncovered  represented  the  consecration  of  the 
church,  but  in  his  edition  of  Kugler  (1887)  he  corrects  his  mistake. 
2'  Wooden  Shoes. 

28  This  chapel  was  built  early  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  Felice  Michele  di 
Piuvichese  Brancacci.  Milanesi  quotes  Felice's  will  of  June  36,  1423.  See 
Milanesi,  II.  296. 

These  portraits  are  lost,  except  that  of  Giovanni.    See  note  26. 

3"  Lanzi  believed  that  he  had  recognized  in  the  possession  of  a  professor  of 
the  University  at  Pavia  an  original  design  for  this  work. 


MASACCIO 


239 


After  this  Masaccio  returned  to  the  works  of  the  Bran- 
cacci  chapel/^  wherein  he  continued  the  stories  from  the 
life  of  St.  Peter,  commenced  by  Masolino  da  Panicale,  of 


which  he  completed  a  certain  part.^  The  installation  of 
St.  Peter  as  first  pontiff,  that  is  to  say,  the  healing  of  the 
sick,  the  raising  to  life  of  the  dead,  and  the  making  the 

31  The  whole  cycle  covers  a  large  part  of  the  life  of  the  Apostle  Peter, 
though  there  is  no  regular  arrangement  of  the  events,  and  the  series  is  not 
complete.  The  Adam  and  Eve  represent  the  old  Covenant,  and  the  Evange- 
lists, originally  on  the  ceiling,  symbolize  the  new. 

32  The  numbers  in  the  list  correspond  with  those  on  the  plan.  Authorities 
differ  somewhat  in  regard  to  the  authors  of  the  various  frescoes.  In  the  list 
the  probable  painter,  according  to  the  latest  criticism,  is  given  first,  while  the 
name  of  the  artist  to  whom  the  picture  was  formerly,  and  in  some  cases  still  is, 
ascribed,  is  put  in  brackets.  1.  The  Expulsion  from  Paradise— Masaccio  [Mas- 
olino]. 2.  Peter  in  Prison  Visited  by  Paul — Pilippino  Lippi  [Masaccio]. 
3.  The  Tribute  Money — Masaccio  [Masolino].  4.  A.  The  Resurrection  of  the 
Child  by  Peter — Filippino  Lippi  and  Masaccio.  B.  St.  Peter  Enthroned — Ma- 


240 


MASACCIO 


halt  sound,  by  the  shadow  of  the  apostle  falling  on  them  as 
he  approaches  the  temple  with  St.  John.  But  remarkable 
above  all  the  rest  is  the  story  which  represents  St.  Peter, 
when,  by  command  of  Christ,  he  draws  money  to  pay  the 
tribute  from  the  mouth  of  the  fish ;  for  besides  that  we 
have  here  the  portrait  of  Masaccio  himself,  in  the  figure 
of  one  of  the  apostles  (the  last  painted  by  his  own  hand, 
with  the  aid  of  a  mirror,  and  so  admirably  done  that  it 
seems  to  live  and  breathe  :)  there  is,  moreover,  great  spirit 
in  the  figure  of  St.  Peter  as  he  looks  inquiringly  towards 
Jesus,  while  the  attention  given  by  the  apostles  to  what  is 
taking  place,  as  they  stand  around  their  master  awaiting 
his  determination,  is  expressed  with  so  much  truth,  and 
their  various  attitudes  and  gestures  are  so  full  of  animation, 
that  they  seem  to  be  those  of  living  men.  Peter  more  par- 
ticularly, bent  forward  and  making  considerable  elfort  as  he 
draws  the  money  from  the  mouth  of  the  fish,  has  his  face 
reddened  with  the  exertion  and  position.  When  he  pays 
the  tribute  also,  the  expression  of  his  face  as  he  carefully 
counts  the  money,  with  that  of  him  who  receives  it,  and 
which  last  betrays  an  excessive  eagerness  to  become  possessed 
of  it ;  all  this  is  depicted  with  the  most  vivid  truth,  the 
latter  regarding  the  coins  which  he  holds  in  his  hand  with 
the  greatest  pleasure.  Masaccio  also  depicted  the  restora- 
tion to  life  of  the  king^s  son  by  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,^^ 

Baccio  and  Filippino  Lippi.  5.  Preaching  of  Peter — Masaccio  [Masolino]. 
6.  Peter  and  John  Curing  the  Sick— Masaccio,  7.  Peter  Baptizing— Masac- 
cio. 8.  Peter  and  John  Distribute  Alms— Masaccio.  9.  A.  Healing  of  the 
Cripple  —  Masolino  [Masaccio].  B.  The  Raising  of  Tabitha  —  Masolino 
[Masaccio].  10.  A.  Martyrdom  of  Peter— Filippino  Lippi.  B.  Peter  and 
Paul  Accused  before  the  Proconsul— Filippino  Lippi.  11.  The  Fall  of  Adam 
and  Eve— Masolino  [Masaccio,  Filippino  Lippi].  12.  The  Liberation  of 
Peter  by  the  Angel— Filippino  Lippi.  The  pictures  in  the  lunettes  C,  D,  E 
are  destroyed.  The  titles  of  some  of  the  pictures  are  disputed ;  see  East- 
lake's  Kugler,  second  edition,  p.  194.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  attempt 
to  prove  that  Masolino  did  not  paint  any  of  the  frescoes  at  present  existing  in 
the  chapel ;  their  argument  is  not  convincing  and  is  referred  to  in  detail  in 
note  22.    The  frescoes  of  Filippino  Lippi  were  painted  in  1484, 

33  The  subject  of  this  picture  appears  to  have  been  taken  from  the  Legenda 
aurea. 


MASACCIO 


241 


but  this  last  work  remained  unfinished  at  the  death  of  Ma- 

saccio,  and  was  afterwards  completed  by  Filippino.  In  the 
picture  which  represents  St.  Peter  administering  the  rite 
of  Baptism,  there  is  a  figure  which  has  always  been  most 
highly  celebrated  :  it  is  that  of  a  naked  youth,  among  those 
who  are  baptized,  and  who  is  shivering  with  the  cold.  This 
is  in  all  respects  so  admirable  and  in  so  fine  a  manner,  that 
it  has  ever  since  been  held  in  reverence  and  admiration  by 
all  artists,  whether  of  those  times  or  of  a  later  period.  This 
chapel  has  indeed  been  continually  frequented  by  an  infinite 
number  of  students  and  masters,  for  the  sake  of  the  benefit 
to  be  derived  from  these  works,  in  which  there  are  still 
some  heads  so  beautiful  and  life-like,  that  we  may  safely 
affirm  no  artist  of  that  period  to  have  approached  so  nearly 
to  the  manner  of  the  moderns  as  did  Masaccio.  His  works 
do  indeed  merit  all  the  praise  they  have  received,  and  the 
rather  as  it  was  by  him  that  the  path  was  opened  to  the  ex- 
cellent manner  prevalent  in  our  own  times  ;  to  the  truth  of 
which  we  have  testimony  in  the  fact  that  all  the  most  cele- 
brated sculptors  and  painters  since  Masaccio's  day  have 
become  excellent  and  illustrious  by  studying  their  art  in  this 
chapel.^''  Among  these  may  be  enumerated  Fra  Giovanni 
da  Fiesole,^  Fra  Filippo,  Filippino,  who  completed  the 
work  ;  Alesso  Baldovinetti,  Andrea  del  Castagna,  Andrea 
del  Verrocchio,  Domenico  del  Ghirlandajo,  Sandro  di  Botti- 
cello,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Pietro  Perugino,  Fra  Bartolommeo 
di  San  Marco,  Mariotti  Albertinelli,  and  the  sublime  Michael 
Angelo  Buonarrotti.^    Raphael  of  Urbino  also  made  his 

^*  The  history  of  Italian  mural  painting  is  divided  into  three  epochs  by 
the  great  masters  Giotto,  Masaccio,  and  Michelangelo,  and  by  the  marking 
series  of  frescoes  in  the  three  chapels  of  Padua,  Florence,  and  Rome — the 
Arena,  the  Brancacci,  and  the  Sistine.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  note 
the  size  and  the  small  number  of  the  "joints  in  the  surface  preparation"  of 
the  walls  of  the  Brancacci  chapel,  and  thence  conclude  that  the  painting  of 
Masaccio's  frescoes  was  carried  on  with  extraordinary  speed  and  facility  of 
handling;  the  extreme  smoothness  of  the  prepared  surfaces  is  also  remarked 
by  the  same  critics. 

3*  Fra  Angelico  was  born  fifteen  years  before  Masaccio,  and  was  already  a 
famous  master  when  the  Brancacci  frescoes  were  painted. 

3«  In  sum,  the  great  initial  step  in  the  progress  of  fifteenth- century  art  was 


242 


MASACCIO 


first  commencement  of  his  exquisite  manner  in  this  place, 
and  to  these  must  be  added  Granaccio,  Lorenzo  de  Credi, 
Eidolfo  del  Ghirlandajo,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Rosso,  Francia 
Bigio,  or  Franciabigio,  Baccio  Bandinelli,  Alonzo  Spagnolo, 
Jacopo  da  Pontormo,  Pierino  del  Vaga,  and  Toto  del  Nun- 
ziata  ;  all  in  short  who  have  sought  to  acquire  their  art  in 
its  perfection,  have  constantly  repaired  to  study  it  in  this 
chapel,  there  imbibing  the  precepts  and  rules  necessary  to 
be  followed  for  the  ensurance  of  success,  and  learning  to 
labour  effectually  from  the  figures  of  Masaccio.  And  if  I 
have  here  made  mention  of  but  few  among  the  foreigners 
who  have  frequented  this  chapel  for  purposes  of  study,  let 
it  suffice  to  say  that  where  the  heads  go,  there  the  members 
are  certain  to  follow.  But  although  the  works  of  Masaccio 
have  ever  been  held  in  such  high  estimation,  yet  it  is  never- 
theless the  opinion,  or  rather  the  firm  belief,  of  many,  that 
he  would  have  done  still  greater  things  for  art,  had  not 
death,  which  tore  him  from  us  at  the  age  of  twenty- six,  so 
prematurely  deprived  the  world  of  this  great  master. 
Whether  it  were  from  envy,  or  because  the  best  things  have 
but  rarely  a  long  duration,  so  it  was  that  he  died  in  the 
fairest  flower  of  his  youth  ;  and  so  sudden  was  his  decease, 
that  there  were  not  wanting  persons  who  ascribed  it  to  poi- 
son rather  than  to  any  other  cause  (accidente).^ 

It  is  said  that  when  Filippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco  heard  of 
this  event,  he  remarked,  "  We  have  suffered  a  very  great 
loss  in  the  death  of  Masaccio,"  and  that  it  grieved  him  ex- 
ceedingly, the  rather  as  he  had  himself  long  laboured  to  in- 
struct the  departed  painter  in  matters  touching  the  rules  of 
perspective  and  architecture.  Masaccio  was  buried  in  the 
above-named  church  of  the  Carmine  ^  in  the  year  1443,  and 

taken  here.  In  the  original  this  '* sublime"  is  il  divinissimo  (the  most 
divine)  Michelangelo  Buonarrotti.  3^  This  is  probably  a  fable. 

3*^  Milanesi  claims  that  it  is  now  proved  beyond  doubt  that  Masaccio  died  in 
Rome  about  the  year  1428,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-six.  He  therefore  was  in 
all  probability  not  buried  in  the  Carmine.  A  document  of  1429  signed  by 
Masaccio's  brother  Giovanni  has  appended  to  it  the  following  note  :  ' '  He  is 
said  to  have  died  in  Rome." 


MASACCIO 


243 


although  no  memorial  was  placed  over  his  sepulchre  at  the 
time — he  having  been  but  little  esteemed  while  in  life  ^ — 
yet  there  were  not  wanting  those  who  honoured  him  after 
his  death.40  4142, 

39  Masaccio  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici  and  the  friendship  of 
Brunelleschi,  so  that  the  statement  that  he  was  "  but  little  esteemed"  may 
be  regarded  in  the  light  of  having  few  public  honours. 

Woltmann  suggests  that  Vasari  may  have  seen  a  memorial  tablet  in  the 
Carmine,  which  was  afterwards  destroyed  in  the  burning  of  the  church  in 
1771. 

In  the  history  of  painting  Masaccio's  is  the  greatest  name  between  Giotto 
and  Raphael ;  he  is  "the  inheritor  of  one,  the  ancestor  of  the  other,"  says  M. 
Lafenestre  (Peinture  Italienne^  Vol.  L,  p.  164).  He  adds  that  Masaccio  de- 
termined anew  the  destiny  of  Italian  painting  "by  setting  it  again,  but  this 
time  strengthened  by  a  perfected  technique,  in  the  broad,  straight  path  which 
Giotto  had  opened."  In  technique  he  added  to  art  a  fuller  comprehension  of 
perspective,  especially  of  aerial  perspective,  the  differences  in  the  planes  of 
figures  in  the  same  composition.  Composition  itself  he  felt  so  broadly  and 
grandly  that  his  Tribute  Money  leads  the  mind  directly  forward  to  the  stanze 
of  the  Vatican.  Simplicity  and  style  were  both  his  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  chapel  of  the  Brancacci  became  a  school-room  to  the  masters  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  His  color  was  agreeable,  gray  and  atmospheric,  his  drawing 
direct  and  simple.  He  was  at  once  an  idealist  and  a  realist,  having  the  merit, 
Bays  the  Vicomte  Henri  Delaborde,  "not  of  having  been  the  only  one  to  study 
familiar  reality,  but  of  having  understood  better  than  any  of  his  predecessors 
the  conditions  in  virtue  of  which  reality  becomes  worthy  of  art."  Symonds, 
in  his  Fine  Arts,  after  having  emphasized  the  greatness  of  this  "  foremost 
among  the  pioneers  of  the  Renaissance,"  notes  the  only  exception  which  can 
perhaps  be  taken  to  Masaccio's  style  by  saying  that  while  he  "  realises  phe- 
nomenal truth  with  a  largeness  and  dignity  peculiar  to  himself,"  "  he  thinks 
perhaps  overmuch  of  external  form,"  of  air  effects,  and  coloring,  so  that  in 
comparing  him  with  Giotto  we  feel  that  where  so  much  has  been  gained  some- 
thing too  has  been  lost,  and  that  with  the  later  painter,  art  becoming  more 
scenic  has  forfeited  somewhat  of  its  dramatic  poignancy.  In  spite  of  this 
forfeit  Masaccio  kept  so  much  of  his  own  that  his  personal  impressions,  says 
M.  B.  Miintz  in  Les  Primitifa^  "became  the  common  patrimony  of  his  cen- 
tury," and  "the  honour  of  having  completely  created  a  new  style  belongs  to 
the  illustrious  and  unfortunate  Masaccio." 

'2  Masaccio  is  said  to  have  painted  his  own  portrait  as  one  of  the  figures  of 
the  Tribute  Money  in  the  Brancacci  chapel.  For  certain  portraits  attributed 
to  Masaccio,  especially  one  said  to  be  of  himself  and  exhibited  from  the  Pan- 
shanger  collection  in  1881,  see  the  Academy  for  January  29th  of  that  ye*r. 


FILIPPO  BKUNELLESCHI,  FLORENTINE  SCULP- 
TOR AND  ARCHITECT  1 


[Bom  1377;  died  1446.] 


Bibliography. — Antonio  Manetti,  Vita  di  Filippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco^  first 
published  by  Moreni  in  1812  ;  re-edited  and  published  by  Carl  Frey  {Sammluug 
ausgewdhlter  Biographien  Vasaris,  IV.,  Berlin,  1887),  by  Holtzinger  (Filippo 
Briiuellesco  di  Antonio  di  Tuccio  Manetti^  Stuttgart),  and  by  Milanesi 
(Operette  Tstoriche  di  Antonio  Manetti^  Florence).  Nardini-Despotti-MoB- 
pignotti,  Filippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco  e  la  cupola  del  duomo  di  Firenze,  Leg- 
horn, 1885.  Schnaase,  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste^  VIII.  564-590. 
Guasti,  La  Cupola  di  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  Florence,  1857.  Guasti,  Santa 
Maria  del  Flore,  La  Gonstruzione  della  chiesa  e  del  Campa?i,ile,  Florence, 
1887.  Delecluze,  Philippe  Brunellesco.  Moreni,  Due  Vite  di  Brunellesco. 
Paolo  Fontana,  11  Brunelleschi  e  Varchitettura  classica,  VArch.  Stor.  I.  356. 
Aurelio  Gotti,  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  e  i  suoi  architetti,  Florence,  1887. 
C.  J.  Cavalucci,  »S'.  Maria  del  Fiore  e  la  sua  facciata^  Florence,  1887.  Hans 
Semper,  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore.  La  Construzione  della  chiesa  e  del  Campa- 
nile secondo  i  documenti  tratti  delV  archivio  delV  opera  secolare  e  da  quello  di 
stato  per  cura  di  Cesare  Guasti,  Florence,  1887.  J.  Durm,  L>ie  Domkuppel 
in  Florenz  und  die  Knppel  der  Feterskirche  in  Bom,  Berlin,  1887.  Chas. 
Eliot  Norton,  Historical  Studies  of  Church  Building  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
Venice,  Siena,  Florence— New  York,  1880.  The  best  and  latest  life  of  Brunel- 
leschi is  Filippo  Brunelleschi,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke,  C.  von  Fabriczy, 
Stuttgart,  1892.  In  1887  many  works  were  published  in  Florence  relating  to 
the  cathedral,  but  principally  to  the  new  facade  of  the  same,  which  was  un- 
veiled in  that  year ;  some  of  the  most  important  of  these  are  included  in  the 
above  list. 


HERE  are  many  men  who,  though  formed  by  nature 


with  small  persons  and  insignificant  features,  are  yet 


endowed  with  so  much  greatness  of  soul  and  force  of 
character,  that  unless  they  can  occupy  themselves  with  diffi- 
cult— nay,  almost  impossible  undertakings,  and  carry  these 
enterprises  to  perfection  to  the  admiration  of  others,  they  are 

1  In  this  biography,  Vasari  was  enabled  to  draw  copiously  from  a  life  of 
Brunelleschi,  the  manuscript  of  which,  long  anonymous,  has  been  proved  by 
Milanesi  to  have  been  written  by  Antonio  Manetti  (1423-97).    The  notice  of 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


245 


incapable  of  finding  peace  for  their  lives.  And,  however 
mean  or  unpromising  may  be  the  occasion  presented  to  such 
persons,  however  trifling  the  object  to  be  attained,  they  find 
means  to  make  it  important,  and  to  give  it  elevation.  There- 
fore it  is  that  none  should  look  with  contemptuous  glance  on 
any  one  whom  he  may  encounter,  having  an  aspect  divested 
of  that  grace  and  beauty  which  we  might  expect  that  Nat- 
ure would  confer,  even  from  his  birth,  upon  him  who  is 
to  exhibit  distinguished  talent,  since  it  is  beyond  doubt 
that  beneath  the  clods  of  earth  the  veins  of  gold  lie  hidden. 
So  much  force  of  mind,  and  so  much  goodness  of  heart,  are 
frequently  born  with  men  of  the  most  unpromising  exte- 
rior, that  if  these  be  conjoined  with  nobility  of  soul,  nothing 
short  of  the  most  important  and  valuable  results  can  be 
looked  for  from  them,  since  they  labour  to  embellish  the  un- 
sightly form  by  the  beauty  and  brightness  of  the  spirit. 
This  was  clearly  exemplified  in  Filippo  di  Ser  Brunellesco, 
who  was  no  less  diminutive  in  person  than  Messer  Forete  da 
Rabatta  and  Giotto,  but  who  was  of  such  exalted  genius 
withal,  that  we  may  truly  declare  him  to  have  been  given 
to  us  by  heaven,  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  a  new  spirit 
to  architecture,  which  for  hundreds  of  years  had  been  lost : 
for  the  men  of  those  times  had  badly  expended  great  treas- 
ures in  the  erection  of  buildings  witliout  order,  constructed 
in  a  wretched  manner  after  deplorable  designs,  with  fan- 
tastic inventions,  laboured  graces,  and  worse  decorations. 
But  it  then  pleased  Heaven,  the  earth  having  been  for  so 
many  years  destitute  of  any  distinguished  mind  and  divine 
genius,  that  Filippo  Brunelleschi  should  leave  to  the  world, 

Brunelleschi,  in  the  Huomini  Singhiilarj  in  Firenze  dal  ATCCCC^  innanzi, 
is  believed  by  Milanesi  and  Horr  Frey  to  be  by  Manetti,  but  Herr  C.  von 
Fabriczy,  Arch.  Stor.  V.,  Fasc.  Z,  is  inclined  to  think  that  the  lives  contained 
in  the  latter  work  were  only  copied  by  Manetti  from  prior  sources.  A  little 
earlier  than  Manetti's  manuscript  is  the  Florentini  excellenti  in  pictura  et 
Sculptura  del  Proemio  di  Cristoforo  Landino  (commentary  on  Dante).  Mi- 
lanesi believes  that  Manetti  completed  his  life  of  Brunelleschi,  that  Vasari 
used  it  to  the  end  of  the  life  of  Filippo,  but  Herr  von  Fabriczy  claims  that 
the  Lihro  d'' Antonio  Billi  also  served  Vasari.  See  also  Arckioio  Utorico 
Italiano,  Serie  V.-VIII.,  Florence,  1891,  pp.  30  ct  se<^. 


246 


FILTPPO  BRUNELLKSCHI 


the  most  noble,  vast,  and  beautiful  edifice  that  had  ever 
been  constructed  in  modern  times,  or  even  in  those  of  the 
ancients  ;  giving  proof  that  the  talent  of  the  Tuscan  artists, 
although  lost  for  a  time,  was  not  extinguished.  He  was, 
moreover,  adorned  by  the  most  excellent  qualities,  among 
which  was  that  of  kindliness,  insomuch  that  there  never 
was  a  man  of  more  benign  and  amicable  disposition  ;  in 
judgment  he  Avas  calm  and  dispassionate,  and  laid  aside  all 
thought  of  his  own  interest  and  even  that  of  his  friends, 
whenever  he  perceived  the  merits  and  talents  of  others  to 
demand  that  he  should  do  so.  He  knew  himself,  instructed 
many  from  the  stores  of  his  genius,  and  was  ever  ready  to 
succour  his  neighbour  in  all  his  necessities  ;  he  declared 
himself  the  confirmed  enemy  of  all  vice,  and  the  friend  of 
those  who  laboured  in  the  cause  of  virtue.  Never  did 
he  spend  his  moments  vainly,  but,  although  constantly 
occupied  in  his  own  works,  in  assisting  those  of  others, 
or  administering  to  their  necessities,  he  had  yet  always 
time  to  bestow  on  his  friends,  for  whom  his  aid  was  ever 
ready. 

There  lived  in  Florence,  as  we  are  told,  a  man  of  good 
renown,  very  praiseworthy  habits,  and  much  activity  in  his 
affairs,  whose  name  was  Ser  Brunellesco  di  Lippo  Lapi,^  and 
whose  grandfather,  called  Oambio,  was  a  very  learned  person, 
the  son  of  a  physician  famous  in  those  times,  and  named 
Maestro  Ventura  Bacherini.  Ser  Brunellesco  chose  for  his 
wife  a  young  woman  of  excellent  conduct,  from  the  noble 
family  of  the  Spini,  with  whom,  as  part  payment  of  her 
dowry,  he  received  a  house,  wherein  he  and  his  children 
dwelt  to  the  day  of  their  death.  This  house  stands  in  a 
corner  on  the  side  opposite  to  San  Michele  Bertelli,^  after 
passing  the  Piazza  degli  Agli,  and  while  Brunellesco  there 
exercised  his  calling  and  lived  happily  with  his  wife,  there 

3  The  earliest  Brunelleschi  of  whom  we  have  knowledge  was  a  certain  Maes- 
tro Cambio  di  Tura,  a  physician  ;  of  his  eldest  son,  Tura,  was  born  Lippo — the 
father  of  Ser  Brunellesco,  and  grandfather  of  Filippo  Brunelleschi,  the  archi- 
tect. ^  Now  San  Gaetano. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLE8CHI 


247 


was  born  to  him  in  the  year  1377  a  son,  to  whom  he  gave  the 
name  of  Filippo,  after  his  own  father,  who  was  then  dead. 
This  birth  he  solemnized  with  all  possible  gladness.  As  the 
infant  advanced  in  childhood,  his  father  taught  him  the 
first  rudiments  of  learning  with  the  utmost  care,  and  herein 
Filippo  displayed  so  much  intelligence,  and  so  clear  an  under- 
standing, as  to  frequently  cause  surprise  that  he  did  not 
take  pains  to  attain  perfection  in  letters,  but  rather  seemed 
to  direct  his  thoughts  to  matters  of  more  obvious  utility,  a 
circumstance  which  caused  Ser  Brunellesco,  who  wished  his 
son  to  follow  his  own  calling  of  a  notary,  or  that  of  his 
great-great-grandfather  (tritavolo)  ^  very  great  displeasure. 
Perceiving,  nevertheless,  that  the  mind  of  the  boy  was  con- 
stantly intent  on  various  ingenious  questions  of  art  and 
mechanics,  he  made  him  learn  writing  and  arithmetic,  and 
then  placed  him  in  the  Guild  of  the  Goldsmiths,^  that  he 
might  acquire  the  art  of  design  from  a  friend  of  his.  This 
was  a  great  satisfaction  to  Filippo,  who  no  long  time  after 
he  had  begun  to  study  and  practise  in  that  art,  understood 
the  setting  of  precious  stones  much  better  than  any  old 
artist  in  the  vocation.  He  also  executed  works  in  niello  ; 
among  others,  figures  in  silver,  two  prophets,  namely,  half- 
lengths,  which  were  placed  over  the  altar  of  San  Jacopo  di 
Pistoja,  and  were  considered  very  beautiful;  these  figures 
were  made  by  Filippo,  for  the  superintendents  of  the  cathe- 
dral in  that  city.  He  also  executed  works  in  basso-rilievo, 
wherein  he  showed  so  complete  a  mastery  of  that  art,  as  to 
make  it  manifest  that  his  genius  must  quickly  overstep  the 
limits  of  the  goldsmith's  calling.  Subsequently,  having 
made  acquaintance  with  several  learned  persons,  he  began 
to  turn  his  attention  to  the  computation  of  the  divisions 
of  time,  the  adjustment  of  weights,  and  the  movement  of 

*  That  is  to  say,  the  calling  of  a  physician. 
He  was  enrolled  in  the  Art  of  Silk  1898 — and  again  enrolled  among  the 
Goldsmiths  in  1404,  these  latter  being  affiliated  with  the  members  of  the 
Silk  Guild.  The  two  Prophets  at  end  of  either  upper  row,  on  the  silver 
altar  in  the  Duomo  of  Pistoja,  are,  perhaps,  Pilippo's  first  work.  See  Sii,'.  Paolo 
Foutana,  reviewing  C.  von  Fabriczy's  Brunellesciii,  in  1  J' Arch.  Star.,  1893. 


248 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


wheels  ;  he  considered  the  method  by  which  they  might 
best  be  made  to  revolve,  and  how  they  might  most  effectually 
be  set  in  motion,  making  several  very  good  and  beautiful 
watches  with  his  own  hand. 

Not  content  with  this,  Filippo  was  seized  with  an  earnest 
desire  to  attempt  the  art  of  sculpture,  and  this  wish  took 
effect  in  such  sort  that  Donatello,  then  a  youth,  being  con- 
sidered of  great  distinction  and  high  promise  therein,  Fi- 
lippo contracted  a  close  intimacy  with  him ;  and  each  at- 
tracted by  the  talents  of  the  other,  they  became  so  strongly 
attached  that  one  seemed  unable  to  live  without  the  other. 
But  Filippo,  who  was  capable  of  attaining  excellence  in  vari- 
ous departments,  gave  his  attention  to  many  professions,  nor 
had  any  long  time  elapsed  before  he  was  considered  by  good 
judges  to  be  an  excellent  architect.  This  he  proved  in  vari- 
ous works  which  served  for  the  decoration  of  houses,  as,  for 
example,  for  that  of  the  house  of  Apollonio  Lapi,  his  kins- 
man, at  the  corner  of  the  Ciai,^  towards  the  Mercato  Vec- 
chio,  where  he  laboured  industriously  all  the  time  that  the 
edifice  was  in  course  of  erection ;  and  he  did  the  same  thing 
at  the  tower  and  house  of  Petraja^  at  Castello,  outside  of 
Florence.  In  the  palace  of  the  Signoria  also,  Filippo  dis- 
tributed and  arranged  all  the  rooms  occupied  for  the  affairs 
of  their  office  by  the  officials  of  the  "  Monte."  He  therein 
constructed  the  windows  and  doors  after  the  manner  of  the 
ancients,  a  thing  not  then  very  frequently  done,  architecture 
being  in  a  very  rude  state  in  Tuscany. 

There  was  at  that  time  a  statue  of  Santa  Maria  Madda- 
lena  to  be  executed  in  linden-wood,  for  the  monks  of  Santo 
Spirito  in  Florence,  and  which  was  to  be  placed  in  one  of 
their  chapels  ;  Filippo  therefore,  who  had  executed  various 
small  works  in  sculpture,  being  desirous  of  proving  that  he 
could  succeed  in  the  greater  also,  undertook  to  execute  this 
statue,  which,  being  completed  and  fixed  in  its  place,  was 
considered  exceedingly  beautiful ;  but  in  the  subsequent 

«  Rather  the  Canto  de'  Ricci. 

'  Now  a  villa  in  the  possession  of  the  King  of  Italy. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


249 


conflagration  of  the  church  in  1471  it  was  burnt,  with  many 
other  remarkable  things. 

Filippo  Brunelleschi  gave  considerable  attention  to  the 
study  of  perspective,  the  rules  of  which  were  then  very  im- 
perfectly understood,  and  often  falsely  interpreted  ;  and  in 
this  he  expended  much  time,  until  at  length  he  discovered 
a  perfectly  correct  method,  that  of  taking  the  ground  plan 
and  sections  by  means  of  intersecting  lines,  a  truly  ingenious 
thing,  and  of  great  utility  to  the  arts  of  design.^  In  these 
inquiries  Filippo  found  so  much  pleasure  that  he  executed 
a  drawing  of  the  Piazza  San  Giovanni,  wherein  he  pour- 
trayed  all  the  compartments  of  the  incrustation  in  black  and 
white  marble,  the  foreshortening  being  managed  with  singu- 
lar felicity  and  grace.  He  represented  the  house  of  the 
Misericordia  in  like  manner,  with  the  shops  of  the  wafer- 
makers  and  the  arch  of  the  Pecori,  giving  the  column  of 
San  Zanobi  on  the  other  side.  This  work  having  been 
highly  commended  by  artists,  and  all  who  were  capable  of 
judging  in  matters  of  the  kind,  gave  Filippo  so  much  en- 
couragement, that  no  long  time  elapsed  before  he  com- 
menced another,  and  made  a  view  of  the  Palace,  the  Piazza, 
the  Loggia  de"  Signori,  with  the  roof  of  the  Pisani,  and  all 
the  buildings  erected  around  that  Square,  works  by  which 
the  attention  of  artists  was  so  effectively  aroused,  tluit  they 
afterwards  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  perspective 
with  great  zeal.^  To  Masaccio  in  particular,  who  was  his 
friend,  Filippio  taught  this  art,  the  painter  being  then  very 
young  ;  but  that  he  did  much  credit  to  his  teacher  is  suffi- 
ciently manifest  from  the  edifices  depicted  in  his  works. 
Nor  did  he  fail  to  instruct  those  who  worked  in  tarsia^ 
which  is  a  sort  of  inlaid  work,  executed  in  woods  of  various 
colours  ;  the  efforts  of  these  artists  he  stimulated  so  power- 
fully, that  from  this  time  a  better  method  prevailed,  and 
many  useful  improvements  were  made  in  that  branch  of 

8  Vasari  also  credits  Paolo  Uccello  with  this  same  discovery,  which  really 
belonged  rather  to  Brunelleschi. 
"  These  drawings  are  probably  lost. 


250 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


art,  wherein,  both  then  and  at  a  later  period,  various  ex- 
cellent works  were  produced,  from  which  Florence  derived 
both  fame  and  profit  during  many  years.  Messer  Paolo  dal 
Pozzo  Toscanelli  returning  to  Florence  about  this  time, 
and  being  at  supper  with  some  of  his  friends  in  a  garden, 
invited  Filippo  also  ;  who,  hearing  them  discourse  of  the 
mathematical  sciences,  formed  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  philosopher,  from  whom  he  acquired  the  knowl- 
edge of  geometry  ;  and  although  Filippo  possessed  no  learn- 
ing, he  yet  reasoned  so  well,  by  the  aid  of  his  practical  ex- 
perience, that  he  frequently  astonished  Toscanelli.  Thus 
labouring  perpetually,  Brunelleschi  next  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  Scriptures,  and  never  failed  to  be  present  at  the 
disputations  and  preaching  of  learned  men.  From  this 
practice  he  derived  so  much  advantage,  by  help  of  his  ex- 
cellent memory,  that  the  above-named  Messer  Paolo,  al- 
luding to  him,  was  accustomed  to  say  that,  to  hear  Filippo 
in  argument,  one  might  fancy  oneself  listening  to  a  second 
Paul.  At  the  same  time  he  gave  earnest  study  to  the  works 
of  Dante,  with  whose  description  of  localities,  and  their  re- 
spective distances,  he  made  himself  very  familiar,  and  fre- 
quently availed  himself  of  them  in  his  conversations,  when  he 
would  cite  them  by  way  of  comparison.  Nor,  indeed,  were 
his  thoughts  ever  occupied  otherwise  than  in  the  considera- 
tion of  ingenious  and  difficult  enquiries  ;  but  he  could  never 
find  any  one  who  gave  him  so  much  satisfaction  as  did 
Donato,  with  whom  he  had  often  held  confidential  dis- 
course ;  these  two  artists  found  perpetual  pleasure  in  the 
society  of  each  other,  and  frequently  conferred  together  on 
the  difficulties  of  their  art.  Now  it  happened  in  tliose  days 
that  Donato  had  completed  a  crucifix  in  wood,  which  was 
placed  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Oroce  in  Florence,  beneath 
the  story  of  the  girl  restored  to  life  by  St.  Francis,  a  pict- 
ure painted  by  Taddeo  Gaddi,  and  he  desired  to  have  the 
opinion  of  Filippo  respecting  his  work  ;  but  he  repented  of 

1°  Toscanelli  was  the  friend  and  adviser  of  Columbus. 

"  This  famous  anecdote  is  repeated  at  greater  length  in  the  life  of  Donatello. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


251 


having  asked  it,  since  Filippo  replied  that  he  had  placed  a 
clown  on  the  cross.  And  from  this  time  there  arose,  as  is 
related  at  length  in  the  life  of  Donato,  the  saying  of  "  Take 
wood  then,  and  make  one  thyself/^  Thereupon  Filippo 
who  never  suffered  himself  to  be  irritated  by  anything  said 
to  him,  however  well  calculated  to  provoke  him  to  anger, 
kept  silence  for  several  months,  meanwhile  preparing  a  cru- 
cifix, also  in  wood,  and  of  similar  size  with  that  of  Donato, 
but  of  such  excellence,  so  well  designed  and  so  carefully 
executed,  that  when  Donato,  having  been  sent  forward  to 
his  house  by  Filippo,  who  intended  him  a  surprise,  beheld 
the  work  (the  undertaking  of  which  by  Filippo  was  entirely 
unknown  to  him)  he  was  utterly  confounded,  and  having  in 
his  hand  an  apron  full  of  eggs,  and  other  things  on  which 
his  friend  and  himself  were  to  dine  together,  he  suffered  the 
whole  to  fall  to  the  ground,  while  he  regarded  the  work  be- 
fore him,  in  the  very  extremity  of  amazement.  The  artis- 
tic and  ingenious  manner  in  which  Filippo  had  disposed  and 
united  the  legs,  trunk,  and  arms  of  the  figure  was  alike 
obvious  and  surprising  to  Donato,  who  not  only  confessed 
himself  conquered  but  declared  the  work  a  miracle.  This 
crucifix  is  now  placed  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella, 
between  the  chapel  of  the  Strozzi  family  and  that  of  the 
Bardi  da  Vernio,  and  is  still  greatly  praised  by  the  judges 
of  modern  times. 

The  talents  of  these  truly  excellent  masters  being  there- 
upon appreciated,  they  received  a  commission  from  the 
Guild  of  the  Butchers,  and  that  of  the  Joiners,*  to  prepare 
the  two  figures,  in  marble,  required  for  the  niches  appropri- 
ated to  those  guilds  among  the  number  surrounding  Or 
San  Michele.  These  figures,  Filippo,  being  occupied  by 
other  affairs,  suffered  Donato  to  execute  alone,  which  he 
did  to  great  perfection. 

*  The  original  Italian,  VArte  de^  Linaioli,  means  the  Guild  of  Linen-drapers, 
not  Joiners  {Legnaioli). 

12  Brunelleschi's  crucifix  over  the  altar  of  the  Gondi  chapel  in  S.  M.  Novella 
is  the  one  referred  to  in  this  story. 


g52 


FILtPPO  BRtiNELLUSCIll 


After  these  things,  and  in  the  year  1401,  it  was  deter- 
mined, seeing  that  sculpture  had  reached  so  elevated  a  con- 
dition, to  reconstruct  the  two  doors  of  the  church  and  bap- 
tistery of  San  Griovanni,  a  work  which,  from  the  death  of 
Andrea  Pisano  to  that  time,  there  had  been  no  masters 
capable  of  conducting.  Wherefore,  this  intention  being 
made  known  to  those  sculptors  who  were  in  Tuscany,  they 
were  sent  for,  their  appointments  were  given  to  them,  and 
the  space  of  a  year  was  allowed  for  the  preparation  of  a 
story  by  each  master.  Among  these  artists  Filippo  and 
Donato  were  also  invited,  and  each  of  them  was  required 
to  prepare  a  story,  in  concurrence  with  Lorenzo  Ghiberti, 
Jacopo  della  Fonte,  Simone  da  Colle,  Francesco  di  Valdam- 
brina,  and  Niccolo  d'Arezzo.  All  these  stories  being  com- 
pleted within  the  year,  and  placed  together  to  be  compared, 
were  all  found  to  be  beautiful,  but  with  certain  differences. 
One  was  well  designed,  but  imperfectly  executed,  as  was 
that  of  Donato  ;  another  was  admirably  drawn,  and  care- 
fully finished,  but  the  composition  of  the  story  was  not 
good,  the  gradual  diminution  of  the  figures  being  neglected, 
as  in  the  case  of  Jacopo  della  Querela  ;  a  third  artist  had 
betrayed  poverty  of  invention,  and  his  figures  were  insig- 
nificant, which  was  the  defect  of  Francesco  di  Valdambrina^s 
specimen  ;  but  the  worst  of  all  were  those  of  Niccolo 
d'Arezzo  and  Simone  da  Colle  ;  while  the  best  was  that  of 
Lorenzo  di  Clone  Ghiberti,  in  whose  work  perfection  of  de- 
sign, delicacy  of  execution,  rich  invention,  knowledge  of 
art,  and  well-finished  figures,  were  all  combined.  Nor  was 
the  story  of  Filippo  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  Lorenzo  :  the 
subject  was  Abraham  proceeding  to  sacrifice  Isaac,''*  and 
among  the  figures  was  that  of  a  servant,  who,  whilst  he  is 
awaiting  his  master,  with  the  ass  feeding  beside  him,  is 
drawing  a  thorn  from  his  foot.  This  figure  merits  con- 
siderable praise. 

13  It  is  improbable  that  Donatello  competed.    See  his  Life. 
i^This  sacrifice  of  Abraham  is  in  the  Bargello,  as  is  also  the  panel  by 
Ghiberti. 


FILIPPO  BRUKELLESCHI  253 

All  these  stories  having  been  exhibited  together,  and  Fi- 
lippo  and  Douato  not  being  satisfied  witli  any,  except  that 
of  Lorenzo,  they  judged  him  to  be  better  adapted  to  execute 
the  work  than  themselves  or  the  masters  who  had  produced 
the  other  stories. They  consequently  persuaded  the  syn- 
dics, by  the  good  reasons  which  they  assigned,  to  adjudge 
the  work  to  Lorenzo,  showing  that  the  public  and  private 
benefit  would  be  thus  most  effectually  secured.  Now  this 
was,  in  truth,  the  sincere  rectitude  of  friendship  ;  it  was 
talent  without  envy,  and  uprightness  of  judgment  in  a 
decision  respecting  themselves,  by  which  these  artists  were 
more  highly  honoured  than  they  could  have  been  by  con- 
ducting the  work  to  the  utmost  summit  of  perfection. 
Happy  spirits  !  who,  while  aiding  each  other,  took  pleasure 
in  commending  the  labours  of  their  competitors.  How 
unhappy,  on  the  contrary,  are  the  artists  of  our  day,  labour- 
ing to  injure  each  other,  yet  still  unsatisfied,  they  burst 
with  envy  while  seeking  to  wound  others.  Filippo  was 
requested  by  the  superintendents  to  undertake  the  work,  in 
concert  with  Lorenzo,  but  he  would  not  consent  to  this, 
desiring  rather  to  be  the  first  in  some  other  art,  than  merely 
an  equal,  and  perhaps  secondary,  in  that  undertaking. 
Wherefore  he  gave  the  story  in  bronze,  which  he  had  pre- 
pared, to  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  who  caused  it  at  a  subsequent 
period  to  be  placed  in  the  old  sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo,  and 
at  the  back  of  the  altar,  where  it  still  remains.  That  of 
Donato  was  given  to  the  Guild  of  the  Money-changers." 

IS  The  judges  of  the  competition  for  the  gates  of  the  Baptistery  would  have 
awarded  the  execution  of  the  doors  to  the  collaboration  of  Ghiberti  and  Bru- 
nelleschi  together.  According  to  Vasari,  Brunelleschi  nobly  refused  any  share 
with  the  man  who  had  surpassed  him  as  sculptor.  According  to  Antonio 
Manetti,  on  the  other  hand,  Brunelleschi  refused  to  do  anything  unless  he 
could  do  all.  These  two  stories,  though  so  contradictory,  are  not  upon  consider- 
ation wholly  incompatible.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  either  sculptor  should 
refuse  collaboration,  feeling  that  the  design  must  be  either  his  or  not  his.  And 
it  is  also  quite  possible  that  Brunelleschi  knowing  that  the  judges  must  at 
least  adjudge  half  the  work  to  Ghiberti,  was  impelled  partly  by  the  conditions 
of  the  situation  and  partly  by  admiration  for  Ghiberti's  model  to  frankly  ad- 
mit its  excellence,  In  the  Bargello. 


254 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


The  commission  for  the  door  being  given  to  Lorenzo  Ghi- 
berti,  Filippo  and  Donato,  who  were  together,  resolved  to 
depart  from  Florence  in  company,  and  to  remain  in  Rome 
for  some  years,  Filippo  proposing  to  pursue  the  study  of 
architecture,  and  Donato  that  of  sculpture.  And  this  Fi- 
lippo did.  Desiring  to  surpass  Lorenzo  and  Donato,  in  pro- 
portion as  architecture  is  more  useful  to  man  than  are 
sculpture  and  paintings,  he  first  sold  a  small  farm  which  he 
possessed  at  Settignano,  when  both  artists  departed  from 
Florence  and  proceeded  to  Rome,  where,  when  Filippo  be- 
held the  magnificence  of  the  buildings  and  the  perfection 
of  the  churches,  he  stood  like  one  amazed,  and  seemed  to 
have  lost  his  wits.^^  They  instantly  made  preparations  for 
measuring  the  cornices  and  taking  the  ground-plans  of 
these  edifices,  Donato  and  himself  both  labouring  contin- 
ually, and  sparing  neither  time  nor  cost.^^  No  place  was 
left  unvisited  by  them,  either  in  Rome  or  without  the  city, 
and  in  the  Campagna ;  nor  did  they  fail  to  take  the  dimen- 
sions of  any  thing  good  within  their  reach.  And  as  Filippo 
was  free  from  all  household  cares,  he  gave  himself  up  so  ex- 

18  The  revival  of  antiquity  in  art  may  be  dated  from  this  visit  of  Brunelleschi 
and  Donatello  to  Rome,  for  it  was  the  most  important  of  the  initial  steps  in 
the  long  march  of  discovery.  M.  Eugene  Miintz,  Donatello^  pp.  7, 10,  declares 
that  the  fate  of  modern  art  was  decided  in  the  first  five  years  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  by  five  or  six  men  at  most ;  by  Claux  Sinter  in  Burgundy,  the 
Van  Eycks  in  Flanders,  and  Brunelleschi  and  Donatello  in  Italy,  who  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt  and  announced  that  for  the  future  observation  of  nature 
(allied  in  Italy  with  the  study  of  the  antique)  should  be  substituted  for  a 
more  or  less  conventionalized  ideal. 

The  great  general  influence  upon  Filippo  of  his  Roman  visit  cannot  be 
doubted,  but  as  to  its  direct  effect  upon  his  individual  works  there  has  lately 
been  some  discussion.  Paolo  Fontana  {II  Brwielleschi  e  V architettwa  claasica  ; 
V Arch.  Stor.  I.,  256-57)  in  a  careful  argument  claims  that  Filippo  is  in  no- 
wise proved  to  have  stayed  long  in  Rome,  and  that  he  based  his  art  less  on 
Roman  remains  than  on  early  Tuscan  buildings.  Sig.  Fontana  especially  cites 
among  the  latter  the  Apostoli  church  at  Florence.  According  to  Herr  Von 
Fabriczy,  Brunelleschi  went  to  Rome  first  about  1403,  stayed  a  year  and  a  half, 
returned  to  Florence,  and  went  back  to  Rome  again  in  1405.  His  youthful 
works  are  not  known  with  any  certainty. 

18  Many  of  the  ancient  monuments  of  Rome  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance 
are  enumerated  by  M.  Miintz  in  the  Revue  ArchMogique  for  1884. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCIII 


255 


clusively  to  his  studies,  that  he  took  no  time  either  to  eat 
or  sleep  ;  his  every  thought  was  of  Architecture  which  was 
then  extinct  :  I  mean  the  good  old  manner,  and  not  the 
Gothic  and  barbarous  one,  which  was  much  practised  at  that 
period.  Filippo  had  two  very  great  purposes  in  his  mind, 
the  one  being  to  restore  to  light  the  good  manner  in  archi- 
tecture, which,  if  he  could  effect,  he  believed  that  he  should 
leave  a  no  less  illustrious  memorial  of  himself  than  Cimabue 
and  Giotto  had  done  ;  the  other  was  to  discover  a  method 
for  constructing  the  Cupola  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  in 
Florence,  the  difficulties  of  which  were  so  great,  that  after 
the  death  of  Arnolfo  Lapi,  no  one  had  ever  been  found  of 
sufficient  courage  to  attempt  the  vaulting  of  that  Cupola 
without  an  enormous  expense  of  scaffolding.^  He  did  not 
impart  this  purpose,  either  to  Donato  or  to  any  living  soul, 
but  he  never  rested  while  in  Rome  until  he  had  well  pon- 
dered on  all  the  difficulties  involved  in  the  vaulting  of  the 
Ritonda  in  that  city  {the  Fantheo?i),  and  had  maturely  con- 
sidered the  means  by  which  it  might  be  effected. He  also 
well  examined  and  made  careful  drawings  of  all  the  vaults 
and  arches  of  antiquity  :  to  these  he  devoted  perpetual 
study,  and  if  by  chance  the  artists  found  fragments  of 
capitals,  columns,  cornices,  or  basements  of  buildings  buried 
in  the  earth,  they  set  labourers  to  work  and  caused  them  to 
be  dug  out,  until  the  foundation  was  laid  open  to  their 
view.  Reports  of  this  being  spread  about  Rome,  the  artists 
were  called  "  treasure-seekers,"  arid  this  name  they  fre- 
quently heard  as  they  passed,  negligently  clothed,  along  the 
streets,  the  people  believing  them  to  be  men  who  studied 
geomancy,  for  the  discovery  of  treasures ;  the  cause  of 
which  was  that  they  had  one  day  found  an  ancient  vase  of 

At  this  time  many  of  the  monuments  of  antiquity  now  destroyed  were  in 
existence.  They  were  drawn  and  measured  by  Brunelleschi  with  the  utmost 
eagerness,  but  Donatello  is  said  by  Antonio  Manetti  to  have  "  had  eyes  only 
for  sculpture." 

'-'1  Thence  the  assertion  of  many  that  the  Cupola  of  the  Rotunda  served 
Brunellesco  as  his  model,  at  least  in  a  general  manner,  for  that  by  which  he 
afterwards  immortalized  himself. — Jfasselli^  quoted  by  Mrs.  Foster. 


256 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


earth,  full  of  coins.  The  money  of  Filippo  falling  short, 
he  supplied  the  want  by  setting  precious  stones  for  the 
goldsmiths  who  were  his  friends ;  which  served  him  for 
a  resource.  Donato  having  returned  to  Florence,  Filippo 
was  left  alone  in  Eome,  and  there  he  laboured  continually 
among  the  ruins  of  the  buildings,  where  he  studied  more 
industriously  than  ever.  Nor  did  he  rest  until  he  had 
drawn  every  description  of  fabric  * — temples,  round,  square, 
or  octagon ;  basilicas,  aqueducts,  baths,  arches,  the  Colos- 
seum, Amphitheatres,  and  every  church  built  of  bricks,  of 
which  he  examined  all  the  modes  of  binding  and  clamping, 
as  well  as  the  turning  of  the  vaults  and  arches  ;  he  took 
note  likewise  of  all  the  methods  used  for  uniting  the  stones, 
as  well  as  of  the  means  used  for  securing  the  equilibrium 
and  close  conjunction  of  all  the  parts ;  and  having  found 
that  in  all  the  larger  stones  there  was  a  hole,  formed  exactly 
in  the  centre  of  each  on  the  under  side,  he  discovered  that 
this  was  for  the  insertion  of  the  iron  instrument  with  which 
the  stones  are  drawn  up,  and  which  is  called  by  us  the 
mason^s  clamps  {la  uUvella),  an  invention,  the  use  of  which 
he  restored  and  ever  afterwards  put  in  practice.  The  dif- 
ferent orders  were  next  divided  by  his  cares,  each  order, 
Doric,  Ionic,  or  Corinthian,  being  placed  apart ;  and  such 
was  the  effect  of  his  zeal  in  that  study,  that  he  became 
capable  of  entirely  reconstructing  the  city  in  his  imagina- 
tion, and  of  beholding  Rome  as  she  had  been  before  she  was 
ruined.  But  in  the  year  1407  the  air  of  the  place  caused 
Filippo  some  slight  indisposition,  when  he  was  advised  by 
his  friends  to  try  change  of  air.  He  consequently  returned 
to  Florence,  where  many  buildings  had  suffered  by  his  ab- 
sence, and  for  these  he  made  many  drawings  and  gave 
numerous  counsels  on  his  return. 

In  the  same  year  ^  an  assemblage  of  architects  and  engi- 
neers was  gathered  in  Florence,  by  the  Superintendents  of 
the  works  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  and  by  the  Syndics  of 

*  The  Italian  word/a&&nca  should  be  translated  construction. 
In  1417. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


257 


the  Guild  of  Woolworkers,  to  consult  on  the  means  by 
which  the  cupola  might  be  raised.  Among  these  appeared 
Filippo,  who  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  edifice  above 
the  roof  must  be  constructed,  not  after  the  design  of  Arnolf o, 
but  that  a  frieze,  fifteen  braccia  high,  must  be  erected,  with 
a  large  window  in  each  of  its  sides :  since  not  only  would 
this  take  the  weight  off  the  piers  of  the  tribune,  but  would 
also  permit  the  cupola  itself  to  be  more  easily  raised. 
Models  after  which  the  work  might  be  executed  were  j^re- 
pared  in  this  manner  accordingly.  Some  months  after 
Filippo's  return,  and  when  he  had  recovered  his  health,  he 
was  one  morning  on  the  Piazza  di  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore 
with  Donate  and  other  artists,  when  the  conversation  turned 
on  the  antiquity  of  works  in  sculpture.  Donate  related, 
that  when  he  was  returning  from  Rome  he  had  taken  the 
road  of  Orvieto,  to  see  the  marble  fa9ade  of  the  Duomo  in 
that  city — a  work  highly  celebrated,  executed  by  the  hands 
of  various  masters,  and  considered  in  those  days  a  very 
remarkable  thing.  He  added,  that  when  afterwards  passing 
by  Cortona,  he  had  there  seen  in  the  capitular  church  a 
most  beautiful  antique  vase  in  marble,  adorned  with  sculpt- 
ures— a  very  rare  circumstance  at  that  time,  since  the  large 
numbers  of  beautiful  relics  brought  to  light  in  our  days  had 
not  then  been  disinterred.  Donate  proceeding  to  describe 
the  manner  in  which  the  artist  had  treated  this  work,  with 
the  delicacy  he  had  remarked  in  it,  and  the  excellence,  nay 
perfection,  of  the  workmanship,  Filippo  became  inflamed 
with  such  an  ardent  desire  to  see  it,  that,  impelled  by  the 
force  of  his  love  to  art,  he  set  off  ,as  he  was,  in  his  mantle, 
his  hood,  and  his  wooden  shoes,  without  sapng  where  he  was 
going,  and  went  on  foot  to  Cortona  for  that  purpose.  Having 
seen  the  vase  ^  and  being  pleased  with  it,  he  drew  a  copy  of 
it  with  his  pen,  and  returned  therewith  to  Florence,  before 
Donate  or  any  other  person  had  perceived  that  he  had  de- 
parted, all  believing  that  he  must  be  occupied  in  drawing  or 

"  This  font  or  marble  sarcophagus  is  still  in  the  cathedral  of  Cortona ;  a 
battle  of  Centaurs  and  Lapithae  is  sculptured  upon  it. 


258 


FILIPPO  BKUNELLESCHI 


inventing  something.*  Having  got  back  to  Florence,  Fi- 
lippo  showed  the  drawing  of  the  vase,  which  he  had  executed 
with  much  patience,  to  Donato,  who  was  not  a  little  aston- 
ished at  this  evidence  of  the  love  Filippo  bore  to  art.  The 
latter  then  remained  several  months  in  Florence,  secretly 
preparing  models  and  machines,  all  intended  for  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Cupola,  amusing  himself  meanwhile  with  per- 
petually bantering  his  brother-artists;  for  it  was  at  this 
time  that  he  made  the  jest  of  'Hhe  Grasso  and  Matteo."''^ 
He  frequently  went  also  for  his  amusement  to  assist  Loren- 
zo Ghiberti  in  finishing  certain  parts  of  the  doors.  But 
one  morning  the  fancy  took  him,  hearing  that  there  was 
some  talk  of  providing  engineers  for  the  construction  of  the 
Cupola,  of  returning  to  Rome,  thinking  that  he  would  have 
more  reputation  and  be  more  sought  from  abroad,  than  if 
he  remained  in  Florence.  When  Filippo  had  returned  to 
Rome  accordingly,  the  acuteness  of  his  genius  and  his  read- 
iness of  resource  were  taken  into  consideration,  when  it  was 
remembered  that  in  his  discourses  he  showed  a  confidence 
and  courage  that  had  not  been  found  in  any  of  the  other 
architects,  who  stood  confounded,  together  with  the  build- 
ers, having  lost  all  power  of  proceeding ;  for  they  were 
convinced  that  no  method  of  constructing  the  Cupola  would 
ever  be  found,  nor  any  beams  that  would  make  a  scaffold 
strong  enough  to  support  the  framework  and  weight  of  so 
vast  an  edifice.  The  Superintendents  were  therefore  re- 
solved to  have  an  end  of  the  matter,  and  wrote  to  Filippo 
in  Rome,  entreating  him  to  repair  to  Florence,  when  he, 
who  desired  nothing  better,  returned  very  readily.  The 

*  The  meaning  of  the  Italian  word  fantasticare  (here  translated  "  to  invent 
something")  may  be  suggested  by  the  expressions  to  build  castles  in  the  air, 
to  dream  day-dreams,  though  it  is  in  reality  untranslatable. 

34 II  gj-asso  Legnainolo  (the  fat  carpenter)  is  the  story  of  a  very  droll  but 
rather  cruel  Florentine  practical  joke.  Antonio  Manetti  is  said  to  have  put 
the  tale  into  its  final  shape.  The  joke  consisted  in  making  a  certain  man  be- 
lieve that  he  had  lost  his  identity  and  had  exchanged  his  own  personality  for 
that  of  another  Florentine  citizen  ;  the  butt  took  the  jest  so  much  to  heart 
that  he  quitted  Florence  and  emigrated  to  the  QOUJ^"^  Pf  th^  King  of  Hungary. 
This  story  was  reprinted  in  Florence  in  1856, 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


259 


wardens  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  and  the  Syndics  of  the 
Guild  of  Wool  workers^  having  assembled  on  his  arrival,  set 
before  him  all  the  difficulties,  from  the  greatest  to  the 
smallest,  which  had  been  made  by  the  masters,  who  were 
present,  together  with  himself,  at  the  audience  :  whereupon 
Filippo  replied  in  these  words — Gentlemen  Superinten- 
dents, there  is  no  doubt  that  great  undertakings  always 
present  difficulties  in  their  execution  ;  and  if  none  ever  did 
so  before,  this  of  yours  does  it  to  an  extent  of  which  you 
are  not  perhaps  even  yet  fully  aware,  for  I  do  not  know 
that  even  the  ancients  ever  raised  so  enormous  a  vault  as  this 
will  be.  I,  who  have  many  times  reflected  on  the  scaffold- 
ings required,  both  within  and  without,  and  on  the  method 
to  be  pursued  for  working  securely  at  this  erection,  have 
never  been  able  to  come  to  a  decision  ;  and  I  am  con- 
founded, no  less  by  the  breadth  than  the  height  of  the  edi- 
fice. Now  if  the  Cupola  could  be  arched  in  a  circular  form, 
we  might  pursue  the  method  adopted  by  the  Romans  in 
erecting  the  Pantheon  of  Rome  ;  that  is,  the  Rotunda. 
But  here  we  must  follow  the  eight  sides  of  the  building, 
dovetailing,  and  so,  to  speak,  enchaining  the  stones,  which 
will  be  a  very  difficult  thing.  Yet,  remembering  that  this 
is  a  temple  consecrated  to  God  and  the  Virgin,  I  confidently 
trust,  that  for  a  work  executed  to  their  honour,  they  will 
not  fail  to  infuse  knowledge  where  it  is  now  wanting,  and 
will  bestow  strength,  wisdom,  and  genius  on  him  who  shall 
be  the  author  of  such  a  project.  But  how  can  I  help  you 
in  the  matter,  seeing  that  the  work  is  not  mine  ?  I  tell  you 
plainly,  that  if  it  belonged  to  me,  my  courage  and  power 
would  beyond  all  doubt  suffice  to  discover  means  whereby 
the  work  might  be  effected  without  so  many  difficulties; 
but  as  yet  I  have  not  reflected  on  the  matter  to  any  extent, 
and  you  would  have  me  tell  you  by  what  method  it  is  to  be 
accomplished.  But  even  if  your  worships  should  determine 
that  the  Cupola  shall  be  raised,  you  will  be  compelled  not 
only  to  make  trial  of  me,  who  do  not  consider  myself  capa- 
ble of  being  the  sole  adviser  in  so  important  a  matter,  but 


260 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


also  to  expend  money,  and  to  command  that  within  a  year, 
and  on  a  fixed  day,  many  architects  shall  assemble  in  Flor- 
ence ;  not  Tuscans  and  Italians  only,  but  Germans,  French, 
and  of  every  other  nation  :  to  them  it  is  that  such  an  un- 
dertaking should  be  proposed,  to  the  end  that  having  dis- 
cussed the  matter  and  decided  among  so  many  masters,  the 
work  may  be  commenced  and  entrusted  to  him  who  shall 
give  the  best  evidence  of  capacity,  or  shall  display  the  best 
method  and  judgment  for  the  execution  of  so  great  a  charge. 
I  am  not  able  to  offer  you  other  counsel,  or  to  propose  a 
better  arrangement  than  this/' 

The  proposal  and  plan  of  Filippo  pleased  the  Syndics  and 
Wardens  of  the  works,  but  they  would  have  liked  that  he 
should  meanwhile  prepare  a  model,  on  which  they  might 
have  decided.  But  he  showed  himself  to  have  no  such  in- 
tention, and  taking  leave  of  them,  declared  that  he  was  so- 
licited by  letters  to  return  to  Rome.  The  Syndics  then 
perceiving  that  their  request  and  those  of  the  wardens  did 
not  suffice  to  detain  him,  caused  several  of  his  friends  to 
entreat  his  stay  ;  but  Filippo  not  yielding  to  these  prayers, 
the  wardens,  one  morning,  ordered  him  a  present  of  money  ; 
this  was  on  the  26th^^  of  May,  1417,  and  the  sum  is  to  be  seen 
among  the  expenses  of  Filippo,  in  the  books  of  the  works. 
All  this  was  done  to  render  him  favourable  to  their  wishes  ; 
but,  firm  to  his  resolution,  he  departed  nevertheless  from 
Florence  and  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  continued  the 
unremitting  study  of  the  same  subject,  making  various  ar- 
rangements and  preparing  himself  for  the  completion  of 
that  work,  being  convinced,  as  was  the  truth,  that  no  other 
than  himself  could  conduct  such  an  undertaking  to  its  con- 
clusion. Nor  had  Filippo  advised  the  syndics  to  call  new 
architects  for  any  other  reason,  than  was  furnished  by  his 
desire  that  those  masters  should  be  the  witnesses  of  his  own 
superior  genius  :  he  by  no  means  expected  that  they  could 
or  would  receive  the  commission  for  vaulting  that  tribune, 
or  would  undertake  the  charge,  which  he  believed  to  be 

26  Rather  the  19th. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


261 


altogether  too  difficult  for  tliem.  Much  time  was  mean- 
while consumed,  before  the  architects,  whom  the  syndics 
had  caused  to  be  summoned  from  afar,  could  arrive  from 
their  different  countries.  Orders  had  been  given  to  the 
Florentine  merchants  resident  in  France,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  Spain,  who  were  authorized  to  spend  large  sums 
of  money  for  the  purpose  of  sending  them,  and  were  com- 
manded to  obtain  from  the  sovereigns  of  each  realm  the 
most  experienced  and  distinguished  masters  of  the  respective 
countries. 

In  the  year  1420,  all  these  foreign  masters  were  at  lengtli 
assembled  in  Florence,  with  those  of  Tuscany,  and  all  the 
best  Florentine  artists  in  design.^''  Filippo  likewise  then 
returned  from  Rome.  They  all  assembled,  therefore,  in  the 
hall  of  the  wardens  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  the  Syndics 
and  Superintendents,  together  with  a  select  number  of  the 
most  capable  and  ingenious  citizens  being  present,  to  the 
end  that  having  heard  the  opinion  of  each  on  the  subject, 
they  might  at  length  decide  on  the  method  to  be  adopted 
for  vaulting  the  tribune.  Being  called  into  the  audience, 
the  opinions  of  all  were  heard  one  after  another,  and  eacli 
architect  declared  the  method  which  he  had  thought  of 
adopting.  And  a  fine  thing  it  was  to  hear  the  strange  and 
various  notions  then  propounded  on  that  matter  :  for  one 
said  that  columns  must  be  raised  from  the  ground  up,  and 
that  on  these  they  must  turn  the  arches,  wliereon  the  wood- 
work for  supporting  the  weight  must  rest.  Others  affirmed 
that  the  vault  should  be  turned  in  cysteolite  or  sponge-stone, 
(spugna),  thereby  to  diminish  the  weight ;  and  several  of 
the  masters  agreed  in  the  opinion,  that  a  column  must  be 
erected  in  the  centre,  and  the  Cupola  raised  in  the  form  of 
a  pavilion,  like  that  of  San  Giovanni  in  Florence.^  Nay, 

In  the  books  of  the  cathedral  works  no  mention  is  made  of  foreigners  as 
present  at  this  meeting,  and  it  is  probable  that  Vasari  either  followed  some 
untrustworthy  tradition,  or  simply  wished  to  enhance  the  victor}'^  of  a  Tuscan. 

2^  Not  the  cupola  itself,  but  the  external  shell ;  the  cupola  is  turned  with 
the  pointed  arch,  the  exterior  has  eight  sides  and  the  form  of  a  pavilion.  See 
Milanesi,  II.  344,  note  8. 


262 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


there  were  not  wanting  those  who  maintained  that  it  would 
be  a  good  plan  to  fill  the  space  with  earth/^  among  which 
small  coins  (quatrini)  should  be  mingled,  that  when  the 
Cupola  should  be  raised,  they  might  then  give  permission 
that  whoever  should  desire  the  soil  might  go  to  fetch  it, 
when  the  people  would  immediately  carry  it  away  without 
expense.  Filippo  alone  declared  that  the  Cupola  might  be 
erected  without  so  great  a  mass  of  wood-work,  without  a 
column  in  the  centre,  and  without  the  mound  of  earth ;  at 
a  much  lighter  expense  than  would  be  caused  by  so  many 
arches,  and  very  easily,  without  any  frame-work  whatever. 

Hearing  this,  the  Syndics,  who  were  listening  in  the  ex- 
pectation of  hearing  some  fine  method,  felt  convinced  that 
Filippo  had  talked  like  a  mere  simpleton,  as  did  the  Super- 
intendents, and  all  the  other  citizens ;  they  derided  him 
therefore,  laughing  at  him,  and  turning  away  ;  they  bade 
him  discourse  of  something  else,  for  that  this  was  the  talk 
of  a  fool  or  madman,  as  he  was.  Therefore  Filippo,  think- 
ing he  had  cause  of  offence,  replied,  But  consider,  gentle- 
men, that  it  is  not  possible  to  raise  the  Cupola  in  any  other 
manner  than  this  of  mine,  and  although  you  laugh  at  me, 
yet  you  will  be  obliged  to  admit  (if  you  do  not  mean  to  be 
obstinate),  that  it  neither  must  nor  can  be  done  in  any  other 
manner  :  and  if  it  be  erected  after  the  method  that  I  pro- 
pose, it  must  be  turned  in  the  manner  of  the  pointed  arch, 
and  must  be  double — the  one  vaulting  within,  the  other 
without,  in  such  sort  that  a  passage  should  be  formed  be- 
tween the  two.  At  the  angles  of  the  eight  walls,  the  build- 
ing must  be  strengthened  by  the  dove-tailing  of  the  stones, 
and  in  like  manner  the  walls  themselves  must  be  girt  around 
by  strong  beams  of  oak.  We  must  also  provide  for  the 
lights,  the  staircases,  and  the  conduits  by  which  the  rain- 
water may  be  carried  off.  And  none  of  you  have  remem- 
bered that  we  must  prepare  supports  within,  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  mosaics,  with  many  other  difficult  arrangements  ; 

'8  According  to  a  tradition  cited  by  Bottari  from  Baglioni's  Life  of  Giacomo 
della  Porta  tlie  cupola  of  the  Rotunda  was  built  in  this  way  (!). 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


263 


but  I,  who  see  the  Cupola  raised^,  I  have  reflected  on  all 
these  things,  and  I  know  that  there  is  no  other  mode  of  ac- 
complishing them,  than  that  of  which  I  have  spoken." 
Becoming  heated  as  he  proceeded,  the  more  Filippo  sought 
to  make  his  views  clear  to  his  hearers,  that  they  might  com- 
prehend and  agree  with  him,  the  more  he  awakened  their 
doubts,  and  the  less  they  confided  in  him,  so  that,  instead 
of  giving  him  their  faith,  they  held  him  to  be  a  fool  and  a 
babbler.  *  Whereupon  being  more  than  once  dismissed,  and 
finally  refusing  to  go,  they  caused  him  to  be  carried  forcibly 
from  the  audience  by  the  servants  of  the  place,  considering 
him  to  be  altogether  mad.  This  contemptuous  treatment 
caused  Filippo  at  a  later  period  to  say,  that  he  dared  not  at 
that  time  pass  through  any  part  of  the  city,  lest  some  one 
should  say,  ^'  See,  where  goes  that  fool ! The  Syndics  and 
others  forming  the  assembly  remained  confounded,  first,  by 
the  difficult  methods  proposed  by  the  other  masters,  and 
next  by  that  of  Filippo,  which  seemed  to  them  stark  non- 
sense. He  appeared  to  them  to  render  the  enterprise  im- 
possible by  his  two  propositions — first,  by  that  of  making 
the  Cupola  double,  whereby  the  great  weight  to  be  sustained 
would  be  rendered  altogether  unmanageable,  and  next  by 
the  proposal  of  building  without  a  frame- work.  Filippo, 
on  tlie  other  hand,  who  had  spent  so  many  years  in  close 
study  to  prepare  himself  for  this  work,  knew  not  to  what 
course  to  betake  himself,  and  was  many  times  on  the  point 
of  leaving  Florence.  Still,  if  he  desired  to  conquer,  it  was 
necessary  to  arm  himself  with  patience,  and  he  had  seen 
enough  to  know  that  the  heads  of  that  city  seldom  re- 
mained long  fixed  to  one  resolution.  He  miglit  easily  have 
shown  tliem  a  ^mall  model  which  he  had  secretly  made,  but 
he  would  not  do  so,  knowing  the  imperfect  intelligence  of 
the  Syndics,  the  envy  of  the  artists,  and  the  instability  of 
the  citizens,  who  favoured  now  one  and  now  another,  as 
each  chanced  to  please  them.    And  I  do  not  wonder  at  this, 

*  The  word  hero  translated  babbler  ia  in  the  origiual  cicala^  the  noisy  Ital- 
ian treeiiopper. 


264 


FlLlPPO  BttUNELLESCHl 


because  every  one  in  Florence  professes  to  know  as  much  of 
these  matters,  as  do  the  most  experienced  masters,  although 
there  are  very  few  who  really  understand  them ;  a  truth 
which  we  may  be  permitted  to  affirm  without  offence  to 
those  who  are  well  informed  on  the  subject.  What  Filippo 
therefore  could  not  effect  before  the  tribunal,  he  began  to 
attempt  with  individuals,  and  talking  apart  now  with  a 
syndic,  now  with  a  warden,  and  again  with  different  citi- 
zens, showing  moreover  certain  parts  of  his  design  ;  he  thus 
brought  them  at  length  to  resolve  on  confiding  the  conduct 
of  this  work,  either  to  him  or  to  one  of  the  foreign  archi- 
tects. Hereupon,  the  Syndics,  the  Wardens,  and  the  citi- 
zens, selected  to  be  judges  in  the  matter,  having  regained 
courage,  gathered  together  once  again,  and  the  architects 
disputed  respecting  the  matter  before  them  ;  but  all  were 
put  down  and  vanquished  on  sufficient  grounds  by  Filippo, 
and  here  it  is  said  that  the  dispute  of  the  egg  arose,  in  the 
manner  following.  The  other  architects  desired  that 
Filippo  should  explain  his  purpose  minutely,  and  show  his 
model  as  they  had  shown  theirs.  This  he  would  not  do,  but 
proposed  to  all  the  masters,  foreigners  and  compatriots,  that 
he  who  could  make  an  egg  stand  upright  on  a  piece  of 
smooth  marble,  should  be  appointed  to  build  the  Cupola, 
since  in  doing  that,  his  genius  would  be  made  manifest. 
They  took  an  egg  accordingly,  and  all  those  masters  did 
their  best  to  make  it  stand  upright,  but  none  discovered  the 
method  of  doing  so.  Wherefore,  Filippo,  being  told  that 
he  might  make  it  stand  himself,  took  it  daintily  into  his 
hand,  gave  the  end  of  it  a  blow  on  the  plane  of  the  marble, 
and  made  it  stand  upright.  Beholding  this,  the  artists 
loudly  protested,  exclaiming,  that  they  could  all  have  done 
the  same  ;  but  Filippo  replied,  laughing,  that  they  might 
also  know  how  to  construct  the  Cupola,  if  they  had  seen  the 
model  and  design.  It  was  thus  at  length  resolved  that 
Filippo  should  receive  the  charge  of  conducting  the  work, 
but  he  was  told  that  he  must  furnish  the  Syndics  and  War- 
dens with  more  exact  information. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


265 


He  returned,  therefore,  to  his  house,  and  stated  his  whole 
purpose  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  as  clearly  as  he  could  possibly 
express  it,  when  it  was  given  to  the  tribunal  in  the  follow- 
ing terms  : — "  The  difficulties  of  this  erection  being  well 
considered,  magnificent  signors  and  wardens,  I  find  that  it 
cannot  by  any  means  be  constructed  in  a  perfect  circle, 
since  the  extent  of  the  upper  part,  where  the  lantern  has  to 
be  placed,  would  be  so  vast,  that  when  a  weight  was  laid 
thereon  it  would  soon  give  way.  Now  it  appears  to  me 
that  those  architects  who  do  not  aim  at  giving  perpetual 
duration  to  their  fabrics,  cannot  have  any  regard  for  the 
durability  of  the  memorial,  nor  do  they  even  know  what 
they  are  doing.  I  have  therefore  determined  to  turn  the 
inner  part  of  this  vault  in  angles,  according  to  the  form  of 
the  walls,  adopting  the  proportions  and  manner  of  the 
pointed  arch,  this  being  a  form  which  displays  a  rapid  ten- 
dency to  ascend,  and  when  loaded  with  the  lantern,  each 
part  will  help  to  give  stability  to  the  other.  The  thickness 
of  the  vault  at  the  base  must  be  three  braccia  and  three- 
quarters  ;  it  must  then  rise  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  de- 
creasing from  without  up  to  the  point  where  it  closes,  and 
where  the  lantern  has  to  be  placed,  and  at  tliis  junction  the 
thickness  must  be  one  braccia  and  a  quarter.  A  second 
vault  shall  then  be  constructed  outside  the  first,  to  preserve 
the  latter  from  the  rain,  and  this  must  be  two  braccia  and  a 
half  thick  at  the  base,  also  diminishing  proportionally  in  tlie 
form  of  a  pyramid,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  parts  shall 
have  their  junction  at  the  commencement  of  the  lantern,  as 
did  the  other,  and  at  the  highest  point  it  must  have  two- 
thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  base.  There  must  be  a  but- 
tress at  each  angle,  which  will  be  eight  in  all,  and  between 
the  angles,  in  the  face  of  each  wall,  there  shall  be  two,  six- 
teen in  all  ;  and  these  sixteen  buttresses  on  the  inner  and 
outer  side  of  each  wall  must  each  have  the  breadth  of  four 
braccia  at  the  base.  These  two  vaults,  built  in  the  form  of 
a  pyramid,  shall  rise  together  in  equal  proportion  to  the 
height  of  the  round  window  closed  by  the  lantern.  There 


266 


FILIPPO  BRTJNELLESCHI 


will  thus  be  constructed  twenty-four  buttresses  with  the 
said  vaults  built  around,  and  six  strong  and  high  arches  of 
a  hard  stone  (macigno),  well  clamped  and  bound  with  iron 
fastenings,  which  must  be  covered  with  tin,  and  over  these 
stones  shall  be  cramping-irons,  by  which  the  vaults  shall  be 
bound  to  the  buttresses.  The  masonry  must  be  solid,  and 
must  leave  no  vacant  space  up  to  the  height  of  five  braccia 
and  a  quarter  ;  the  buttresses  being  then  continued,  the 
arches  will  be  separated.  The  first  and  second  courses  from 
the  base  must  be  strengthened  everywhere  by  long  plates  of 
macigno  laid  crosswise,  in  such  sort  that  both  vaults  of  the 
Cupola  shall  rest  on  these  stones.  Throughout  the  whole 
height,  at  every  ninth  braccia  there  shall  be  small  arches 
constructed  in  the  vaults  between  the  buttresses,  with  strong 
cramps  of  oak,  whereby  the  buttresses  by  which  the  inner 
vault  is  supported  will  be  bound  and  strengthened  ;  these 
fastenings  of  oak  shall  then  be  covered  with  plates  of  iron, 
on  account  of  the  staircases.  The  buttresses  are  all  to  be 
built  of  macigno,  or  other  hard  stone,  and  the  walls  of  the 
Cupola  are,  in  like  manner,  to  be  all  of  solid  stone  bound  to 
the  buttresses  to  the  height  of  twenty-four  braccia,  and 
thence  upwards  they  shall  be  constructed  of  bricks,  or  of 
spongite  (spugne),  as  shall  be  determined  on  by  the  masters 
who  build  it,  they  using  that  which  they  consider  lightest. 
On  the  outside  a  passage  or  gallery  shall  be  made  above  the 
windows,  which  below  shall  form  a  terrace,  with  an  open 
parapet  or  balustrade  two  braccia  high,  after  the  manner  of 
those  of  the  lower  tribunes,  and  forming  two  galleries,  one 
over  the  other,  placed  on  a  richly-decorated  cornice,  the 
upper  gallery  being  covered.  The  rain-water  shall  be  car- 
ried off  the  Cupola  by  means  of  a  marble  channel,  one -third 
of  an  ell  broad,  the  water  being  discharged  at  an  outlet  to 
be  constructed  of  a  hard  stone  {pietra  forte),  beneath  the 
channel.  Eight  ribs  of  marble  shall  be  formed  on  the 
angles  of  the  external  surface  of  the  Cupola,  of  such  thick- 
ness as  may  be  requisite  ;  these  shall  rise  to  the  height  of 
one  braccia  above  the  Cupola,  with  cornices  projecting  in 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


267 


the  manner  of  a  roof,  two  braccia  broad,  that  the  summit 
may  be  complete  and  sufficiently  furnished  with  eaves  and 
channels  on  every  side  ;  and  these  must  have  the  form  of 
the  pyramid,  from  their  base,  or  point  of  junction,  to  their 
extremity.  Thus  the  Cupola  shall  be  constructed  after  the 
method  described  above,  and  without  framework,  to  the 
height  of  thirty  braccia,  and  from  that  height  upwards  it 
may  be  continued  after  such  manner  as  shall  be  determined 
on  by  the  masters  who  may  have  to  build  it,  since  practice 
teaches  us  by  what  methods  to  proceed." 

When  Filippo  had  written  the  above,  he  repaired  in  the 
morning  to  the  tribunal,  and  gave  his  paper  to  the  Syndics 
and  Wardens,  who  took  the  whole  of  it  into  their  considera- 
tion ;  and,  although  they  were  not  able  to  understand  it  all, 
yet  seeing  the  confidence  of  Filippo,  and  finding  that  the 
other  architects  gave  no  evidence  of  having  better  grounds 
to  proceed  on, — he  moreover  showing  a  manifest  security, 
by  constantly  repeating  the  same  things  in  such  a  manner 
that  he  had  all  the  appearance  of  having  vaulted  ten  Cu- 
polas ; — the  Syndics,  seeing  all  this,  retired  apart,  and 
finally  resolved  to  give  him  the  work :  they  would  liave 
liked  to  see  some  example  of  the  manner  in  which  he  meant 
to  turn  this  vault  without  framework,  but  to  all  the  rest 
they  gave  their  approbation.  And  fortune  was  favourable 
to  this  desire  :  Bartolommeo  Barbadori  having  determined 
to  build  a  chapel  in  Santa  Felicita,  and  having  spoken  con- 
cerning it  with  Filippo,  the  latter  had  commenced  the  work, 
and  caused  the  chapel,  which  is  on  the  right  of  the  entrance, 
where  is  also  the  holy  water  vase  (likewise  by  the  hand  of 
Filippo),  to  be  vaulted  without  any  framework.  At  the 
same  time  he  constructed  another,  in  like  manner,  for 
Stiatta  Ridolfi,  in  the  church  of  Santo  Jacopo  sopr'  Arno  ; 
that,  namely,  beside  the  chapel  of  the  High  Altar ;  ^  and 

''9  Baldinucci  and  V Anonimo  (Manetti)  say  that  the  cupoletta  by  Brunel- 
leschi,  which  served  as  pattern  for  the  great  Cupola,  was  in  the  Ridolfi  chapel 
of  Sant'  Jacopo  sopr'  Arno,  destroyed  in  1709,  and  that  the  other  still  exists 
in  Santa  Felicita  in  the  Barbadori,  now  Capponi  chapel.  See  Milanesi,  II. 
350,  2  t. 


268 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


these  works  obtained  him  more  credit  than  was  given  to  his 
words.  The  Consuls  and  Wardens  feeling  at  length  assured, 
by  the  writing  that  he  had  given  them,  and  by  the  works 
which  they  had  seen,  entrusted  the  Cupola  to  his  care,  and 
he  was  made  principal  master  ^  of  the  works  by  a  majority 
of  votes.*  They  would  nevertheless  not  commission  him 
to  proceed  beyond  the  height  of  twelve  braccia,^^  telling  him 
that  they  desired  to  see  how  the  work  would  succeed,  but 
that  if  it  proceeded  as  successfully  as  he  expected,  they 
would  not  fail  to  give  him  the  appointment  for  the  re- 
mainder. The  sight  of  so  much  obstinacy  and  distrust  in 
the  Syndics  and  Wardens  was  so  surprising  to  Filippo,  that 
if  he  had  not  known  himself  to  be  the  only  person  capable 
of  conducting  the  work,  he  would  not  have  laid  a  hand  upon 
it ;  but  desiring,  as  he  did,  to  secure  the  glory  of  its  com- 
pletion, he  accepted  the  terms,  and  pledged  himself  to 
conduct  the  undertaking  perfectly  to  the  end.  The  writ- 
ing Filippo  had  given  was  copied  into  a  book  wherein  the 
purveyor  kept  the  accounts  of  the  works  in  wood  and 
marble,  together  with  the  obligation  into  which  Filippo 
had  entered  as  above  said.  An  allowance  was  then  made  to 
him,  conformably  with  what  had  at  other  times  been  given 
to  other  Masters  of  the  works. 

When  the  commission  given  to  Filippo  became  known  to 
the  artists  and  citizens,  some  thought  well  of  it,  and  others 
ill,  as  always  is  the  case  with  a  matter  which  calls  forth  the 
opinions  of  the  populace,  the  thoughtless,  and  the  envious. 
Whilst  the  preparation  of  materials  for  beginning  to  build 
was  making,  a  party  was  formed  among  the  artists  and 
citizens  ;  and  these  men  proceeding  to  the  Syndics  and 
Wardens,  declared  that  the  matter  had  been  concluded  too 
hastily,  and  that  such  a  work  ought  not  to  be  executed  ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  one  man  only  ;  they  added,  that 

*  The  original  is  "  by  a  majority  of  beans  "  (pariito  difave)^  as  the  Floren- 
tines used  black  and  white  beans  in  voting. 

'0  April,  16,  1420 :  Brnnelleschi,  Ghiberti,  and  Battista  d' Antonio  were 
elected  head-masters  of  the  works. 

31  VAnonimo  says  fourteen  braccia,  not  twelve. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLE8CIII 


269 


if  the  Syndics  and  Wardens  had  been  destitute  of  dis- 
tinguished men,  instead  of  being  furnished  with  such  in 
abundance,  they  would  have  been  excusable,  but  that  what 
was  now  done  was  not  likely  to  redound  to  the  honour  of 
the  citizens,  seeing,  that  if  any  accident  should  happen, 
they  would  incur  blame,  as  persons  who  had  conferred  too 
great  a  charge  on  one  man,  without  considering  the  losses 
and  disgrace  that  might  result  to  the  public.  All  this  con- 
sidered, it  would  be  well  to  give  Filippo  a  colleague,  who 
might  restrain  his  impetuosity  (furore). 

Lorenzo  Ghiberti  had  at  that  time  attained  to  high  credit 
by  the  evidence  of  his  genius,  which  he  had  given  in  the 
doors  of  San  Giovanni ;  and  that  he  was  much  beloved  by 
certain  persons  who  were  very  powerful  in  the  government 
was  now  proved  with  sufficient  clearness,  since,  perceiving 
the  glory  of  Filippo  to  increase  so  greatly,  they  laboured  in 
such  a  manner  with  the  Syndics  and  Wardens,  under  the 
pretext  of  care  and  anxiety  for  the  building,  that  Ghiberti 
was  united  with  Filippo  in  the  work.  The  bitter  vexation 
of  Filippo,  the  despair  into  which  he  fell,  when  he  heard 
what  the  Wardens  had  done,  may  be  understood  by  the  fact 
that  he  was  on  the  point  of  flying  from  Florence  ;  and  had 
it  not  been  that  Donato  and  Luca  della  Robbia  comforted 
and  encouraged  him,  he  would  have  gone  out  of  his  senses. 
A  truly  wicked  and  cruel  rage  is  that  of  those  men,  who, 
blinded  by  envy,  endanger  the  honours  and  noble  works  of 
others  in  the  base  strife  of  ambition  :  it  was  not  the  fault  of 
these  men  that  Filippo  did  not  break  in  pieces  the  models, 
set  fire  to  the  designs,  and  in  one  half  hour  destroy  all  the 
labours  so  long  endured,  and  ruin  the  hopes  of  so  many 
years.  The  Wardens  excused  themselves  at  first  to  Filippo, 
encouraging  him  to  proceed,  reminding  him  that  the  inven- 
tor and  author  of  so  noble  a  fabric  was  still  himself,  and  no 
other  ;  but  they,  nevertheless,  gave  Lorenzo  a  stipend  equal 
to  that  of  Filippo.  The  work  was  then  continued  witli  but 
little  pleasure  on  the  part  of  Filippo,  who  knew  that  lie 
must  endure  all  the  labours  connected  therewith,  and  would 


270 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


then  have  to  divide  the  honour  and  fame  equally  with 
Lorenzo.^  Taking  courage,  nevertheless,  from  the  thought 
that  he  should  find  a  method  of  preventing  the  latter  from 
remaining  very  long  attached  to  that  undertaking,  he  con- 
tinued to  proceed  after  the  manner  laid  down  in  the  writing 
given  to  the  Wardens.  Meanwhile  the  thought  occurred  to 
the  mind  of  Filippo  of  constructing  a  complete  model,  which, 
as  yet,  had  never  been  done.  This  he  commenced  forthwith, 
causing  the  parts  to  be  made  by  a  certain  Bartolommeo,  a 
joiner,  who  dwelt  near  his  studio.*  In  this  model  (the 
measurements  of  which  were  in  strict  accordance  with  those 
of  the  building  itself,  the  difference  being  of  size  only)  all 
the  difficult  parts  of  the  structure  were  shown  as  they  were 
to  be  when  completed  ;  as,  for  example,  staircases  lighted 
and  dark,  with  every  other  kind  of  light,  with  the  buttresses 
and  other  inventions  for  giving  strength  to  the  building, 
the  doors,  and  even  a  portion  of  the  gallery.  Lorenzo, 
having  heard  of  this  model,  desired  to  see  it,  but  Filippo 
refusing,  he  became  angry,  and  made  preparations  for  con- 

*Here  both  translator  and  author  err,  the  former  in  rendering  Bartolom- 
meo cJie  stava  dallo  iStudio, ''''  hy  "  Bartolommeo  who  lived  near  his  (Brunel- 
leschi's)  studio,''''  instead  of  by  "Bartolommeo  who  lived  in,  or  near  the  Univer- 
sity." This  Studio,  or  college,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  present  Via  dello 
Studio,  was  established  in  lo48,  after  the  Plague,  by  the  Florentines,  in  order 
to  attract  students  to  the  depopulated  city.  In  Vasari's  time  an  artist's  studio 
was  called  a  hottega  (shop).  The  author  errs  in  confusing  this  Bartolommeo 
di  San  Marco  detto  dallo  Studio,  who  aided  Ghiberti  in  making  his  model, 
with  Bartolommeo  di  Francesco,  who  assisted  Brunelleschi. 

22  In  a  note,  page  446,  Les  Primitifs,  M.  Miintz  criticises  the  efforts  of 
MM.  Nardini  and  Frey  to  rehabilitate  Ghiberti  and  discredit  the  "  Legend 
of  the  Cupola,"  in  which  efforts  they  refuse  all  oral  tradition  and  accept  only 
the  official  proceedings,  M.  Miintz  adds  that  aside  from  any  other  argument, 
twenty  buildings  besides  the  Cupola,  proclaim  the  genius  of  Brunelleschi,  while 
not  one  architectural  monument  speaks  for  Ghiberti.  Sig.  Nardini  (Despotti- 
Mospignotti)  claims  that  Ghiberti  took  part  honourably  in  all  deliberations 
and  has  been  unfairly  treated  by  Manetti.  He  believes  that  Filippo  found  all 
the  general  lines  prescribed.  There  is,  however,  nothing  to  prove  this,  and 
Filippo  certainly  was  the  discoverer  of  the  fact  that  he  could  proceed  without 
interior  scaffoldings  {Armatura).  See  the  important  chapters  (pp.  339-408) 
upon  Filippo's  achievements  as  engineer  in  Herr  von  Fabriczy's  previously 
cited  life  of  the  architect. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


271 


structing  a  model  of  his  own,  that  he  might  not  appear  to 
be  receiving  his  salary  for  nothing,  but  that  he  also  might 
seem  to  count  for  something  in  the  matter.  For  these 
models  Filippo  received  fifty  lire  and  fifteen  soldi,  as  we  find 
by  an  order  in  the  book  of  Migliore  di  Tommaso,  under  date 
of  the  3rd  October  1419,  while  Lorenzo  was  paid  three 
hundred  lire  for  the  labour  and  cost  of  his  model,  a  difference 
occasioned  by  the  partiality  and  favour  shown  to  him,  rather 
than  merited  by  any  utility  or  benefit  secured  to  the  building 
by  the  model  which  he  had  constructed. 

This  vexatious  state  of  things  continued  beneath  the  eyes 
of  Filippo  until  the  year  142G,  the  friends  of  Lorenzo  calling 
him  the  inventor  of  the  work,  equally  with  Filippo,  and  this 
caused  so  violent  a  commotion  in  the  mind  of  the  latter,  that 
he  lived  in  the  utmost  disquietude.  Various  improvements 
and  new  inventions  were,  besides,  presenting  themselves  to 
his  thoughts,  and  he  resolved  to  rid  himself  of  his  colleague 
at  all  hazards,  knowing  of  how  little  use  he  was  to  the  work. 
Filippo  had  already  raised  the  walls  of  the  Cupola  to  the 
lieight  of  twelve  braccia  in  both  vaults,  but  the  works, 
whether  in  wood  or  stone,  that  were  to  give  strength  to  the 
fabric,  had  still  to  be  executed,  and  as  this  was  a  matter  of 
difficulty,  he  determined  to  speak  with  Lorenzo  respecting 
it,  that  he  might  ascertain  whether  the  latter  had  taken  it 
into  consideration.  But  Lorenzo  was  so  far  from  having 
thought  of  this  exigency,  and  so  entirely  unprepared  for  it, 
that  he  replied  by  declaring  that  he  would  refer  that  to  Fi- 
lippo as  the  inventor.  The  answer  of  Lorenzo  pleased  Fi- 
lippo, who  thought  he  here  saw  the  means  of  removing  his 
colleague  from  the  works,  and  of  making  it  manifest  that  he 
did  not  possess  that  degree  of  knowledge  in  the  matter  which 
was  attributed  to  him  by  his  friends,  and  implied  in  the 
favour  which  had  placed  him  in  the  situation  he  held.  All 
the  builders  were  now  engaged  in  the  work,  and  waited  only 
for  directions,  to  commence  the  part  above  the  twelve  brac- 
cia, to  raise  the  vaults,  and  render  all  secure.  The  closing 
in  of  the  Cupola  towards  the  top  having  commenced,  it  was 


272 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


necessary  to  provide  the  scaffolding,  that  the  masons  and 
labourers  might  work  without  danger,  seeing  that  the  height 
was  such  as  to  make  the  most  steady  head  turn  giddy,  and 
the  firmest  spirit  shrink,  merely  to  look  down  from  it.  The 
masons  and  other  masters  were  therefore  waiting  in  expecta- 
tion of  directions  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  chains  were 
to  be  applied,  and  the  scaffoldings  erected ;  but,  finding 
there  was  nothing  determined  on  either  by  Lorenzo  or  Fi- 
lippo,  there  arose  a  murmur  among  the  masons  and  other 
builders,  at  not  seeing  the  work  pursued  with  the  solicitude 
previously  shown  ;  and  as  the  workmen  were  poor  persons 
who  lived  by  the  labour  of  their  hands,  and  who  now  believed 
that  neither  one  nor  the  other  of  the  architects  had  courage 
enough  to  proceed  further  with  the  undertaking,  they  went 
about  the  building  employing  themselves  as  they  best  could 
in  looking  over  and  furbishing  up  all  that  had  been  already 
executed. 

But  one  morning  Filippo  did  not  appear  at  the  works :  he 
tied  up  his  head,  went  to  bed  complaining  bitterly,  and 
causing  plates  and  towels  to  be  heated  with  great  haste  and 
anxiety,  pretending  that  he  had  an  attack  of  pleurisy.  The 
builders,  who  stood  waiting  directions  to  proceed  with  their 
work,  on  hearing  this,  demanded  orders  of  Lorenzo  for 
what  they  were  to  do  ;  but  he  replied,  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  work  belonged  to  Filippo,  and  that  they  must  wait 
for  him.  "  How  ?  "  said  one  of  them,  do  not  you  know 
what  his  intentions  are  ?  "  ^'  Yes,"  replied  Lorenzo,  but 
I  would  not  do  any  thing  without  him."  This  he  said  by 
way  of  excusing  himself  ;  for  as  he  had  not  seen  the  model 
of  Filippo,  and  had  never  asked  him  what  method  he  meant 
to  pursue,  that  he  might  not  appear  ignorant,  so  he  now 
felt  completely  out  of  his  depth,  being  thus  referred  to  his 
own  judgment,  and  the  more  so  as  he  knew  that  he  was  em- 
ployed in  that  undertaking  against  the  will  of  Filippo. 
The  illness  of  the  latter  having  already  lasted  more  than 
two  days,  the  purveyor  of  the  works,  with  many  of  the 
master-builders,  went  to  see  him,  and  repeatedly  asked  him 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


273 


to  tell  them  what  they  should  do ;  but  he  constantly  re- 
plied, "  You  have  Lorenzo,  let  him  begin  to  do  something 
for  onc'e/^  Nor  could  they  obtain  from  him  any  other  re- 
ply. When  this  became  known,  it  caused  much  discussion  : 
great  blame  was  thrown  upon  the  undertaking,  and  many 
adverse  judgments  were  uttered.  Some  said  that  Filippo 
had  taken  to  his  bed  from  grief,  at  finding  that  he  had  not 
power  to  accomplish  the  erection  of  the  Cupola,  and  that  he 
was  now  repenting  of  having  meddled  with  the  matter  ;  but 
his  friends  defended  him,  declaring  that  his  vexation  might 
arise  from  the  wrong  he  had  suffered  in  having  Lorenzo 
given  to  him  as  a  colleague,  but  that  his  disorder  was  pleu- 
risy, brought  on  by  his  excessive  labours  for  the  work.  In 
the  midst  of  all  this  tumult  of  tongues,  the  building  was 
suspended,  and  almost  all  the  operations  of  the  masons  and 
stone  -  cutters  came  to  a  stand.  These  men  murmured 
against  Lorenzo,  and  said,  "  He  is  good  enough  at  drawing 
the  salary,  but  when  it  comes  to  directing  the  manner  in 
which  we  are  to  proceed,  he  does  nothing ;  if  Filippo  were 
not  here,  or  if  he  should  remain  long  disabled,  what  can 
Lorenzo  do  ?  and  if  Filippo  be  ill,  is  that  his  fault  ?  "  The 
Wardens,  perceiving  the  discredit  that  accrued  to  them  from 
this  state  of  things,  resolved  to  make  Filippo  a  visit,  and 
having  reached  his  house  they  first  condoled  with  him  on 
his  illness,  told  him  into  what  disorder  the  building  had 
fallen,  and  described  the  troubles  which  this  malady  had 
brought  on  them.  Whereupon  Filippo,  speaking  with 
much  heat,  partly  to  keep  up  the  feint  of  illness,  but  also 
in  part  from  his  interest  in  the  work,  exclaimed,  ^'  What ! 
is  not  Lorenzo  there  ?  why  does  not  he  do  something  ?  I 
cannot  but  wonder  at  your  complaints."  To  this  the  War- 
dens replied,  ^^He  will  not  do  anything  without  you." 
Whereunto  Filippo  made  answer,  But  I  could  do  it  well 
enough  without  him."  This  acute  and  doubly  significant 
reply  sufficed  to  the  Wardens,  and  they  departed,  having 
convinced  themselves  that  Filippo  was  sick  of  the  desire  to 
work  alone  ;  they  therefore  sent  certain  of  his  friends  to 


274 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


draw  liim  from  his  bed,  with  the  intention  of  removing  Lo- 
renzo from  the  work.  Filippo  then  returned  to  the  build- 
ing, but  seeing  the  power  that  Lorenzo  possessed  by  means 
of  the  favour  he  enjoyed,  and  that  he  desired  to  receive  the 
salary  without  taking  any  share  whatever  in  the  labour,  he 
bethought  himself  of  another  method  for  disgracing  him, 
and  making  it  publicly  and  fully  evident  that  he  had  very 
little  knowledge  of  the  matter  in  hand.  He  consequently 
made  the  following  discourse  to  the  Wardens  (Operai),  Lo- 
renzo being  present : — '^'^Signori  Operai,  if  the  time  we  have 
to  live  were  as  well  secured  to  us  as  is  the  certainty  that  we 
may  very  quickly  die,  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  many 
works  would  be  completed,  which  are  now  commenced  and 
left  imperfect.  The  malady  with  which  I  have  had  the 
misfortune  to  be  attacked,  might  have  deprived  me  of  life, 
and  put  a  stop  to  this  work  ;  wherefore,  lest  I  should  again 
fall  sick,  or  Lorenzo  either,  which  God  forbid,  I  have  con- 
sidered that  it  would  be  better  for  each  to  execute  his  own 
portion  of  the  work  :  as  your  worships  have  divided  the 
salary,  let  us  also  divide  the  labour,  to  the  end  that  each, 
being  incited  to  show  what  he  knows  and  is  capable  of  per- 
forming, may  proceed  with  confidence,  to  his  own  honour 
and  benefit,  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  republic.  Now  there 
are  two  difficult  operations  which  must  at  this  time  be  put 
into  course  of  execution — the  one  is  the  erection  of  scaffold- 
ings for  enabling  the  builders  to  work  in  safety,  and  which 
must  be  prepared  both  for  the  inside  and  outside  of  the 
fabric,  where  they  will  be  required  to  sustain  the  weight  of 
the  men,  the  stones  and  the  mortar,  with  space  also  for  the 
crane  to  draw  up  the  different  materials,  and  for  other 
machines  and  tools  of  various  kinds.  The  other  difficulty 
is  the  chain-work,  which  has  to  be  constructed  upon  the 
twelve  braccia  already  erected,  this  being  requisite  to  bind 
and  secure  the  eight  sides  of  the  Cupola,  and  which  must 
surround  the  fabric,  enchaining  the  whole,  in  such  a  man- 
ner, that  the  weight  which  has  hereafter  to  be  laid  on  it 
shall  press  equally  on  all  sides,  the  parts  mutually  support- 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


ing  each  other,  so  that  no  portion  of  the  edifice  shall  be  too 
heavily  pressed  on  or  over-weighted,  but  that  all  shall  rest 
firmly  on  its  own  basis.  Let  Lorenzo  then  take  one  of  these 
works,  whichever  he  may  think  he  can  most  easily  execute, 
I  will  take  the  other  and  answer  for  bringing  it  to  a  success- 
ful conclusion,  that  we  may  lose  no  more  time."  Lorenzo 
having  heard  this,  was  compelled,  for  the  sake  of  his  hon- 
our, to  accept  one  or  other  of  these  undertakings ;  and  al- 
though he  did  it  very  unwillingly,  he  resolved  to  take  the 
chain-work,  thinking  that  he  might  rely  on  the  counsels  of 
the  builders,  and  remembering  also  that  there  was  a  chain- 
work  of  stone  in  the  vaulting  of  San  Giovanni  di  Fiorenza, 
from  which  he  might  take  a  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the 
arrangement.  One  took  the  scaffolds  in  hand  accordingly, 
and  the  other  the  chain-work,  so  that  both  were  put  in  prog- 
ress. The  scaffolds  of  Filippo  were  constructed  with  so 
much  ingenuity  and  judgment,  that  in  this  matter  the  very 
contrary  of  what  many  had  before  expected  was  seen  to  have 
happened,  since  the  builders  worked  thereon  with  as  much 
security  as  they  would  have  done  on  the  ground  beneath, 
drawing  up  all  the  requisite  weights  and  standing  them- 
selves in  perfect  safety.^  The  models  of  these  scaffolds 
were  deposited  in  the  hall  of  the  Wardens.  Lorenzo  exe- 
cuted the  chain-work  on  one  of  the  eight  walls  with  the  ut- 
most difficulty,  and  when  it  was  finished  the  Wardens 
caused  Filippo  to  look  at  it.  He  said  nothing  to  them,  but 
with  some  of  his  friends  he  held  discourse  on  the  subject, 
declaring  that  the  building  required  a  very  different  work 
of  ligature  and  security  to  that  one,  laid  in  a  manner  alto- 
gether unlike  the  method  there  adopted ;  for  that  tliis 
would  not  suffice  to  support  the  weight  which  was  to  be  laid 
on  it,  the  pressure  not  being  of  sufficient  strength  and  firm- 
ness.   He  added  that  the  sums  paid  to  Lorenzo,  with  the 

33  The  original  drawing  of  one  of  these  scaffoldings  was  in  the  library  of  the 
Senator  Giovan  Battista  Nelli,  and  was  published  by  him  in  1753  {Discorsi  di 
Architettura).  Another  drawing  is  in  the  Metropolitana  Fiorentina  Illus- 
trata^  1820.    See  Milanesi,  11.  357,  note  1. 


276 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


chain-work  which  he  had  caused  to  be  constructed,  were  so 
much  labour,  time,  and  money  thrown  away.  The  remarks 
of  Filippo  became  known,  and  he  was  called  upon  to  show 
the  manner  that  ought  to  be  adopted  for  the  construction 
of  such  a  chain- work  ;  wherefore,  having  already  prepared 
his  designs  and  models,  he  exhibited  them  immediately,  and 
they  were  no  sooner  examined  by  the  Wardens  and  other 
masters,  than  they  perceived  the  error  into  which  they  had 
fallen  by  favouring  Lorenzo.  For  this  they  now  resolved  to 
make  amends  ;  and  desiring  to  prove  that  they  were  capable 
of  distinguishing  merit,  they  made  Filippo  chief  and  super- 
intendent of  the  whole  fabric  for  life,  commanding  that 
nothing  should  be  done  in  the  work  but  as  he  should  direct. 
As  a  further  mark  of  approbation,  they  presented  him 
moreover  with  a  hundred  florins,  ordered  by  the  Syndics  and 
Wardens,  under  date  of  August  13,  14:23,^  through  Lorenzo 
Paoli,  notary  of  the  administration  of  the  works,  and  signed 
by  Gherardo  di  Messer  Filippo  Corsini :  they  also  voted  him 
an  allowance  of  one  hundred  florins  for  life.  Whereupon, 
having  taken  measures  for  the  future  progress  of  the  fabric, 
Filippo  conducted  the  works  with  so  much  solicitude  and 
such  minute  attention,  that  there  was  not  a  stone  placed  in 
the  building  which  he  had  not  examined.  Lorenzo  on  the 
other  hand,  finding  himself  vanquished  and  in  a  manner 
disgraced,  was  nevertheless  so  powerfully  assisted  and  fa- 
voured by  his  friends,  that  he  continued  to  receive  his  sal- 
ary, under  the  pretext  that  he  could  not  be  dismissed  until 
the  expiration  of  three  years  from  that  time.^ 

Drawings  and  models  were  meanwhile  continually  pre- 
pared by  Filippo,  for  the  most  minute  portions  of  the  build- 
ing, for  the  stages  or  scaffolds  for  the  workmen,  and  for  the 
machines  used  in  raising  the  materials.    There  were  never- 

3*  February  4,  1425,  Brunelleschi  was  confirmed  provveditore^^  together 
with  Ghiberti  ;  it  was  not  till  April  13,  1443,  that  he  (Brunelleschi)  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  sole  headship.    See  Milanesi,  II.  358,  note  2. 

35  Brunelleschi' s  monthly  salary  from  1425  to  1443  had  been  raised  from 
three  to  fifty  and  finally  to  one  hundred  florins.  Ghiberti,  on  the  other  hand, 
never  received  more  than  three  florins. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


277 


theless  several  malicious  persons,  friends  of  Lorenzo,  who 
did  not  cease  to  torment  him  by  daily  bringing  forward 
models  in  rivalry  of  those  constructed  by  him,  insomuch 
that  one  was  made  by  Maestro  Antonio  da  Verzelli,^^  and 
other  masters  who  were  favoured  and  brought  into  notice — 
now  by  one  citizen  and  now  by  another,  their  fickleness  and 
mutability  betraying  the  insufficiency  of  their  knowledge 
and  the  weakness  of  their  judgment,  since  having  perfec- 
tion within  their  reach,  they  perpetually  brought  forward 
the  imperfect  and  useless. 

The  chain-work  was  now  completed  around  all  the  eight 
sides,  and  the  builders,  animated  by  success,  worked  vigor- 
ously ;  but  being  pressed  more  than  usual  by  Filippo,  and 
having  received  certain  reprimands  concerning  the  masonry 
and  in  relation  to  other  matters  of  daily  occurrence,  discon- 
tents began  to  prevail.  Moved  by  this  circumstance  and 
by  their  envy,  the  chiefs  among  them  drew  together  and 
got  up  a  faction,  declaring  that  the  work  was  a  laborious 
and  perilous  undertaking,  and  that  they  would  not  proceed 
with  the  vaulting  of  the  Cupola  but  on  condition  of  re- 
ceiving large  payments,  although  their  wages  had  already 
been  increased  and  were  much  higher  than  was  usual  :  by 
these  means  they  hoped  to  injure  Filippo  and  increase  tlicir 
own  gains.  This  circumstance  displeased  the  Wardens 
greatly,  as  it  did  Filippo  also  ;  but  the  latter,  having  re- 
flected on  the  matter,  took  his  resolution,  and  one  Saturday 
evening  he  dismissed  them  all.  The  men  seeing  themselves 
thus  sent  about  their  business,  and  not  knowing  how  the 
affair  would  turn,  were  very  sullen  ;  but  on  the  following 
Monday  Filippo  set  ten  Lombards  to  work  at  the  buikling, 
and  by  remaining  constantly  present  with  them,  and  saying, 
"do  this  here,"  and  "  do  that  there,"  he  taught  them  so 
much  in  one  day  that  they  were  able  to  continue  the  works 
during  many  weeks.  The  masons  seeing  themselves  thus 
disgraced  as  well  as  deprived  of  their  employment,  and 

3«  He  was  a  carpenter  who  in  1423  received  a  florin  as  payment  for  a  device 
for  raising  stones. 


278 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


knowing  that  they  would  find  no  work  equally  profitable, 
sent  messengers  to  Filippo,  declaring  that  they  would  will- 
ingly return,  and  recommending  themselves  to  his  consider- 
ation. Filippo  kept  them  for  several  days  in  suspense,  and 
seemed  not  inclined  to  admit  them  again  ;  they  were  after- 
wards reinstated,  but  with  lower  wages  than  they  had  re- 
ceived at  first  :  thus  where  they  had  thought  to  make  gain 
they  had  suffered  loss,  and  by  seeking  to  revenge  them- 
selves on  Filippo,  they  brought  injury  and  shame  on  their 
own  heads. 

The  tongues  of  the  envious  were  now  silenced,  and  when 
the  building  was  seen  to  proceed  so  happily,  the  genius  of 
Filippo  obtained  its  due  consideration ;  and,  by  all  who 
judged  dispassionately,  he  was  already  held  to  have  shown 
a  boldness  which  has,  perhaps,  never  before  been  displayed 
in  their  works,  by  any  architect  ancient  or  modern.  This 
opinion  was  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  Filippo  now  brought 
out  his  model,  in  which  all  might  see  the  extraordinary 
amount  of  thought  bestowed  on  every  detail  of  the  building. 
The  varied  invention  displayed  in  the  staircases,  in  the  pro- 
vision of  lights,  both  within  and  without,  so  that  none 
might  strike  or  injure  themselves  in  the  darkness,  were  all 
made  manifest,  with  the  careful  consideration  evinced  by 
the  different  supports  of  iron  which  were  placed  to  assist 
the  footsteps  wherever  the  ascent  was  steep.  In  addition 
to  all  this,  Filippo  had  even  thought  of  the  irons  for  fixing 
scaffolds  within  the  Cupola,  if  ever  they  should  be  required 
for  the  execution  of  mosaics  or  pictures  ;  he  had  selected 
the  least  dangerous  positions  for  the  places  of  the  conduits, 
to  be  afterwards  constructed  for  carrying  off  the  rain-water, 
had  shown  where  these  were  to  be  covered  and  where  un- 
covered ;  and  had  moreover  contrived  different  outlets  and 
apertures,  whereby  the  force  of  the  winds  should  be  dimin- 
ished, to  the  end  that  neither  vapours  nor  the  vibrations  of 
the  earth  should  have  power  to  do  injury  to  the  building  : 
all  which  proved  the  extent  to  which  he  had  profited  by  his 
studies,  during  the  many  years  of  his  residence  in  Rome. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


279 


When,  in  addition  to  these  things,  the  Superintendents  con- 
sidered how  much  he  had  accomplished  in  the  shaping,  fix- 
ing, uniting,  and  securing  the  stones  of  this  immense  pile, 
they  were  almost  awe-struck  on  perceiving  that  the  mind 
of  one  man  had  been  capable  of  all  that  Filippo  had  now 
proved  himself  able  to  perform.  His  powers  and  facilities 
continually  increased,  and  that  to  such  an  extent,  that 
there  was  no  operation,  however  difficult  and  complex, 
which  he  did  not  render  easy  and  simple  ;  of  this  he  gave 
proof  in  one  instance  among  others,  by  the  employment  of 
wheels  and  counterpoises  to  raise  heavy  weights,  so  that  one 
ox  could  draw  more  than  six  pairs  could  have  moved  by  the 
ordinary  methods.  The  building  had  now  reached  such  a 
height,  that  when  a  man  had  once  arrived  at  the  summit, 
it  was  a  very  great  labour  to  descend  to  the  ground,  and 
the  workmen  lost  much  time  in  going  to  their  meals,  and 
to  drink  ;  they  also  suffered  great  inconvenience  in  the  heat 
of  the  day  from  the  same  cause  ;  arrangements  were  there- 
fore made  by  Filippo,  for  opening  wine- shops  and  eating- 
houses  in  the  Cupola ;  where  the  required  food  being  sold, 
none  were  compelled  to  leave  their  labour  until  the  evening, 
which  was  a  relief  and  convenience  to  the  men,  as  well  as  a 
very  important  advantage  to  the  work.  Perceiving  the 
building  to  proceed  rapidly,  and  finding  all  his  undertak- 
ings happily  successful,  the  zeal  and  confidence  of  Filippo 
increased,  and  he  laboured  perpetually  :  he  went  himself  to 
the  ovens  where  the  bricks  were  made,  examined  the  clay, 
proved  the  quality  of  the  working,  and  when  they  were 
baked  he  would  select  and  set  them  apart,  with  his  own 
hands.  In  like  manner,  while  the  stones  were  under  the 
hands  of  the  stone-cutters,  he  would  look  narrowly  to  see 
that  they  were  hard  and  free  from  clefts  ;  he  supplied  the 
stone-cutters  with  models  in  wood  or  wax,  or  hastily  cut  on 
the  spot  from  turnips,  to  direct  them  in  the  shaping  and 
junction  of  the  different  masses ;  he  did  the  same  thing 
for  the  men  who  prepared  the  iron-work  ;  Filippo  likewise 
invented  hooked  hinges,  with  the  mode  of  fixing  them  to 


280 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


the  door-posts,  and  greatly  facilitated  the  practice  of  arch- 
itecture, which  was  certainly  brought  by  his  labours  to  a 
perfection  that  it  would  else  perhaps  never  have  attained 
among  the  Tuscans. 

In  the  year  1423,^  when  the  utmost  rejoicing  and  festivity 
was  prevailing  in  Florence,  Filippo  was  chosen  one  of  the 
Signori  for  the  district  of  San  Giovanni,  for  the  months  of 
May  and  June,^  Lapo  Niccolini  being  chosen  Gonfalonier 
for  the  district  of  Santa  Croce  :  and  if  Filippo  be  found 
registered  in  the  Priorista  as  ^'di  Ser  Brunellesco  Lippi," 
this  need  not  occasion  surprise,  since  they  called  him  so 
after  his  grandfather,  Lippo,  instead  of  ^'  di  Lapi,"  as  they 
ought  to  have  done.  And  this  practice  is  seen  to  prevail  in 
the  Priorista,  with  respect  to  many  others,  as  is  well  known 
to  all  who  have  examined  it,  or  who  are  acquainted  with 
the  custom  of  those  times.  Filippo  performed  his  func- 
tions carefully  in  that  office,  and  in  others  connected  with 
the  magistracy  of  the  city,  to  which  he  was  subsequently 
appointed,  he  constantly  acquitted  himself  with  the  most 
judicious  consideration. 

The  two  vaults  of  the  Cupola  were  now  approaching  their 
close,  at  the  circular  window  where  the  lanthorn  was  to 
begin,  and  there  now  remained  to  Filippo,  who  had  made 
various  models  in  wood  and  clay,  both  of  the  one  and  the 
other,  in  Rome  and  Florence,  to  decide  finally  as  to  which 
of  these  he  would  put  in  execution,^^  wherefore  he  resolved 

37  Rather  1425. 

3«  In  1434  Brunelleschi's  rivals,  finding  that  he  had  forgotten  or  did  not 
trouble  himself  to  pay  his  taxes,  took  advantage  of  the  fact  and  had  him 
thrown  into  prison,  whence  he  was  speedily  liberated,  the  consuls  of  the 
guild  of  builders  who  had  accused  him  being  imprisoned  in  their  turn.  Bal- 
dinucci  discovered  and  printed  the  document  relating  to  the  decree  ;  it  is 
dated  August  20,  1434.  See  Guasti,  La  Cupola  di  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore, 
page  54. 

39  Of  his  models  there  still  remain  a  wooden  one  of  the  outer  cupola  and 
drum  ;  another  showing  the  staircase  between  the  outer  and  inner  domes ; 
one  of  the  magazines  beneath  the  drum  and  two  machines  for  raising  weights. 
Milanesi  thinks  that  the  small  model  of  the  lantern  cannot  be  by  Brunel- 
leschi,  as  it  shows  none  of  the  internal  arrangement.    See  Milanesi,  II.  362,  2. 

Herr  von  Fabriczy,  in  his  Life  of  Brunelleschi,  does  not  claim  that  the  latter 


FILIPPO  BKUNELLESCHI  281 

to  complete  the  gallery,  and  accordingly  made  different 
plans  for  it,  which  remained  in  the  hall  of  the  Wardens 
after  his  death,  but  which  by  the  neglect  of  those  officials, 
have  since  been  lost.  But  it  was  not  until  our  own  days, 
that,  even  a  fragment  was  executed  on  a  part  of  one  of  the 
eight  sides,  (to  the  end  that  the  building  might  be  com- 
pleted,) but  as  it  was  not  in  accordance  with  the  plan  of 
Filippo,  it  was  removed  by  the  advice  of  Michelagnolo 
Buonarotti,'*^  and  was  not  again  attempted. 

Filippo  also  constructed  a  model  for  the  lantern  with  his 
own  hand  ;  it  had  eight  sides,  the  proportions  were  in  har- 
mony with  those  of  the  Cupola,  and  for  the  invention  as  well 
as  variety  and  decoration,  it  was  certainly  very  beautiful. 
He  did  not  omit  the  staircase  for  ascending  to  the  ball, 
which  was  an  admirable  thing ;  but  as  he  had  closed  the 
entrance  with  a  morsel  of  wood  fixed  at  the  lower  part,  no 
one  but  himself  knew  its  position.  Filippo  was  now  highly 
renowned,  but  notwithstanding  this,  and  although  he  had 
already  overcome  the  envy  and  abated  the  arrogance  of  so 
many  opponents,  he  could  not  yet  escape  the  vexation  of 
finding  that  all  the  masters  of  Florence,  when  his  model 
had  been  seen,  were  setting  themselves  to  make  otliers  in 
various  manners  ;  nay,  there  was  even  a  lady  of  the  Gaddi 
family,  who  ventured  to  place  her  knowledge  in  competi- 
tion with  that  of  Filippo.  The  latter,  meanwhile,  could 
not  refrain  from  laughing  at  the  presumption  of  these 

had  any  great  part  in  the  *'  aesthetics,"  the  ornamentation  of  the  dome,  nor 
any  part  in  the  cornice  or  perhaps  in  the  semi-circular  (ediculi,  but  he  thinks 
that  the  lantern  in  its  ensemble  looks  like  Filippo's  work. 

Who  said  that  it  looked  "like  a  gabbui  da  grillo''''  (a  cricket's  cage). 
It  was  designed  by  Baccio  d'Agnolo  and  remains  to-day  as  it  was  left  un- 
finished at  the  time,  running  partially  around  the  dome.  To  understand  this 
remark  of  Michelangelo,  one  should  be  familiar  with  the  Florentine  custom  of 
annually  catching  crickets  on  Ascension  Day,  and  putting  them  in  little 
wicker  cages. 

The  following  artists  presented  models  for  the  lantern  :  Filippo  himself, 
Ghiberti,  Antonio  Manetti,  Bruno  di  Ser  Lapo  Mazzei,  and  Domenico  Stagnajo  ; 
the  competition  was  decided  in  Filippo's  favor  December  31,  1430.  See  the 
Metropolitana  Illustrata,  pp.  29-33,  quoted  by  Milauesi. 


282 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


people,  and  when  he  was  told  by  certain  of  his  friends  that 
he  ought  not  to  show  his  model  to  any  artist  lest  they 
should  learn  from  it,  he  replied  that  there  was  but  one  true 
model,  and  that  the  others  were  good  for  nothing.  Some 
of  the  other  masters  had  used  parts  of  Filippo's  model  for 
their  own,  which,  when  the  latter  perceived,  he  remarked. 
The  next  model  made  by  this  personage  will  be  mine  alto- 
gether." The  work  of  Filippo  was  very  highly  praised, 
with  the  exception,  that,  not  perceiving  the  staircase  by 
which  the  ball  was  to  be  attained,  the  model  was  con- 
sidered defective  on  that  point.  The  Superintendents  de- 
termined, nevertheless,  to  give  him  the  commission  for  the 
work,  but  on  condition  that  he  should  show  them  the  stair- 
case ;  whereupon  Filippo,  removing  the  morsel  of  wood 
which  he  had  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  stair,  showed  it  con- 
structed as  it  is  now  seen,  within  one  of  the  piers,  and  pre- 
senting the  form  of  a  hollow  reed  or  blow-pipe,  having  a 
recess  or  groove  on  one  side,  with  bars  of  bronze,  by  means 
of  which  the  summit  was  gradually  attained.  Filippo  was 
now  at  an  age  which  rendered  it  impossible  that  he  should 
live  to  see  the  lanthorn  completed  ;  he  therefore  left  direc- 
tions, by  his  will,  that  it  should  be  built  after  the  model 
here  described,  and  according  to  the  rules  which  he  had 
laid  down  in  writing,  affirming  that  the  fabric  would  other- 
wise be  in  danger  of  falling,  since,  being  constructed  with 
the  pointed  arch,  it  required  to  be  rendered  secure  by 
means  of  the  pressure  of  the  weight  to  be  thus  added.  But, 
though  Filippo  could  not  complete  the  edifice  before  his 
death,  he  raised  the  lanthorn  to  the  height  of  several  braccia, 
causing  almost  all  the  marbles  required  for  the  completion 
of  the  building  to  be  carefully  prepared  and  brought  to  the 
place.  ^2   At  the  sight  of  these  huge  masses  as  they  arrived, 

^2  The  first  stone  of  the  lantern,  placed  in  1445,  was  blessed  by  Sant'  Anto- 
nino  ;  the  last,  placed  in  1461,  received  the  benediction  of  Archbishop  Giovanni 
Neroni  before  the  Chapter,  the  Signory,  and  the  Gonfaloniere,  according  to 
Moreni,  Bue  Vite  del  Brunellesco  ;  but  Milanesi  remarks  that  as  Sant'  An- 
tonino  became  archbishop  in  1446,  there  must  be  some  error  about  his  having 
consecrated  the  corner-stone  of  the  lantern. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


283 


the  people  stood  amazed,  marvelling  that  it  should  be  pos- 
sible for  Filippo  to  propose  the  laying  of  such  a  weight  on 
the  Cupola.  It  was,  indeed,  the  opinion  of  many  intel- 
ligent men  that  it  could  not  possibly  support  that  weight. 
It  appeared  to  them  to  be  a  piece  of  good  fortune  that  he 
had  conducted  it  so  far,  and  they  considered  the  loading  it 
so  heavily  to  be  a  tempting  of  Providence.*  Filippo  con- 
stantly laughed  at  these  fears,  and  having  prepared  all  the 
machines  and  instruments  required  for  the  construction  of 
the  edifice,  he  ceased  not  to  employ  all  his  time  in  taking 
thought  for  its  future  requirements,  providing  and  prepar- 
ing all  the  minutiae,  even  to  guarding  against  the  danger  of 
the  marbles  being  chipped  as  they  were  drawn  up  ;  to  which 
intent  the  arches  of  the  tabernacles  were  built  within  de- 
fences of  wood-work ;  and  for  all  beside  the  master  gave 
models  and  written  directions,  as  we  have  said. 

How  beautiful  this  building  is,  it  will  itself  bear  testi- 
mony. With  respect  to  the  height,  from  the  level  ground 
to  the  commencement  of  the  lantern,  there  are  one  hundred 
and  fifty-four  braccia  ;  the  body  of  the  lantern  is  thirty-six 
braccia  high  ;  the  copper  ball  four  braccia  ;  the  cross  eight 
braccia  ;  in  all  two  hundred  and  two  braccia.'*^  And  it  may 
be  confidently  affirmed  that  the  ancients  never  carried  their 
buildings  to  so  vast  a  height,''*  nor  committed  themselves  to 
so  great  a  risk  as  to  dare  competition  with  the  heavens, 
which  this  structure  verily  appears  to  do,  seeing  that  it  rears 

*     Un  tentare  Dio,^^  a  tempting  of  God. 

The  ball,  with  the  cross  (the  work  of  Andrea  Verrocchio,  whose  life  fol- 
lows), was  fixed  in  its  place  twenty-tliree  years  after  the  death  of  Brunel- 
leschi ;  but,  having  been  thrown  down  by  the  lightning  in  the  year  1001,  it 
has  been  replaced  by  one  somewhat  larger. — Masselli. 

It  exceeds  the  cupola  of  the  Vatican,  both  in  height  and  circumference, 
by  four  braccia ;  and  although  supported  by  eight  ribs  only,  which  renders  it 
much  lighter  than  that  of  the  Vatican,  which  has  sixteen  flanking  buttresses, 
it  is  nevertheless  more  solid  and  firm.  Thus  it  has  never  required  to  be 
supported  by  circling  hoops  of  iron.  See  the  Temj^io  Vaticano  of  Fontani, 
the  Discorsi  delV  Architettura^  etc.  Schorn  remarks  that  the  columns  on 
the  south  side  did  at  first  shrink  a  little,  which  caused  some  slight  cracks, 
but  they  were  immediately  closed. — German  Edition^  voL  II.,  p.  204,  quoted 
by  Mrs.  Foster. 


284 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHl 


itself  to  such  an  elevation  that  the  hills  around  Florence  do 
not  appear  to  equal  it.'*^  And  of  a  truth  it  might  seem  that 
the  heavens  did  feel  envious  of  its  height,  since  their  light- 
nings perpetually  strike  it.  While  this  work  was  in  progress, 
Filippo  constructed  many  other  fabrics,  which  shall  now 
be  enumerated  in  their  due  order. 

For  the  family  of  the  Pazzi,  Filippo  prepared,  with  his 
own  hand,  the  model  for  the  chapter-house  of  Santa  Croce, 
in  Florence,  a  work  of  great  and  varied  beauty.''^  He  like- 
wise made  a  model  of  the  Busini  Palace,'''  a  dwelling  calcu- 
lated for  two  families,'*^  as  also  the  model  for  the  house  and 
loggia  of  the  Innocenti,  the  vaulting  of  which  was  com- 
pleted without  scaffolding,  a  method  which  is  still  observed 
in  the  present  day.  It  is  said  that  Filippo  was  invited  to 
Milan,  to  construct  the  model  of  a  fortress  for  the  Duke 
Filippo  Maria,  and  that  he  left  the  building  of  the  house  of 
the  Innocenti  meanwhile  to  the  care  of  his  intimate  friend 
Francesco  della  Luna."*^  This  Francesco  made  the  border- 
ing of  an  architrave  increasing  from  the  upper  to  the  lower 

45  The  solemn  consecration  of  the  cupola  (not  the  lantern)  took  place  in 
1436.  In  May,  1887,  the  new  fagade  of  the  cathedral  designed  by  Emilio  de 
Fabris  was  inaugurated.  The  citizens  showed  a  true  Florentine  interest  in 
their  monument  and  for  some  months  the  whole  town  was  divided  into  two 
hostile  factions  by  the  question  whether  the  fa<^ade  should  have  a  basilical  or 
tricuspidal  coronal  termination.  Meetings  were  held,  votes  were  taken,  and 
registers  in  the  caf  s  and  other  public  places  received  the  signatures  even  of 
school-boys.  The  basilical  termination  was  finally  adopted  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
tests of  the  tricuspidal  party.  For  copious  statistics  regarding  the /afa(ie, 
see  the  two  extra  numbers  printed  by  the  Ilhtstrazione  Italiana^  May,  1887. 

M.  Mdntz  in  his  Primitifs  contrasts  this  chapel  of  the  Pazzi,  built  after 
1420,  with  the  Badia  of  Fiesole,  the  Pitti  Palace,  and  San  Lorenzo.  In  the 
last  three  Brunelleschi  admitted  only  such  ornament  as  was  strictly  architect- 
ural, excluding  painting  and  sculpture.  In  the  Pazzi  chapel  he  borrowed  from 
antiquity  its  decorative  richness  and  sought  lightness,  grace,  and  elegance. 
See  L'Archivio  Storico  dell'  Arte.Yl.,  for  a  review  of  Herr  von  Fabriczy's  life 
of  Brunelleschi,  and  the  conclusion,  that  in  spite  of  Vasari,  the  Pazzi  chapel 
was  not  begun  till  after  1430.  The  interior  is  decorated  by  Luca  della  Robbia, 
G.  da  Majano,  Donatello,  and  Desiderio. 

4^  Now  Palazzo  Quaratesi  in  the  Piazza  Ognissanti. 

48  Begun  in  1421,  finished  in  1445.    It  still  exists  and  is  an  example  of  the 
simplicity  with  which  Brunelleschi  produced  a  pleasing  effect. 
4"  The  hospital  was  finished  in  1445  by  della  Luna. 


FILIPPO  BUUNELLESCHI 


285 


part,  which  is  a  violation  of  architectural  rules.  When 
Filippo  returned,  and  reproached  him  for  having  done  such 
a  thing,  Francesco  replied  that  he  had  taken  it  from  the 
church  of  San  Giovanni,  which  is  antique.  ^'  One  sole 
fault,"  answered  Filippo,  "  is  to  he  found  in  that  building, 
and  that  thou  hast  imitated."  The  model  of  this  edifice, 
by  Filippo's  own  hand,  was  for  many  years  to  be  seen  in 
the  house  of  the  Guild  of  For  Santa  Maria,  and  was  highly 
valued,  as  a  portion  of  the  fabric  still  remained  to  be  fin- 
ished, but  it  is  now  lost.  Filippo  likewise  prepared  the 
model  for  the  abbey  of  the  Canons-regular  of  Fiesole,  for 
Cosimo  de'  Medici.^  The  architecture  is  of  a  richly-deco- 
rated character,  and  the  building  is  cheerful,  commodious, 
and  truly  magnificent.  The  church,  of  which  the  vaultings 
are  coved,  is  lofty,  and  the  sacristy  has  its  due  conveniences, 
as  have  all  the  buildings  of  the  monastery.  But  the  circum- 
stance most  worthy  of  consideration,  and  most  important, 
is,  that  having  to  erect  that  edifice,  properly  levelled,  on 
the  declivity  of  the  mountain,  he  availed  himself  with  infi- 
nite judgment,  of  the  descent,  and  placed  therein  the  cellars, 
laundries,  bakehouses,  kitchens,  stables,  wood  chambers, 
and  many  other  offices  beside,  so  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
imagine  anything  more  commodious.  He  thus  secured  a 
level  space  for  the  edifice  ;  insomuch  that  he  was  able  to 
place  the  loggia,  the  refectory,  the  infirmary,  the  noviciate, 
the  dormitory,  the  library,  and  other  principal  apartments 
proper  to  a  monastery,  on  the  same  plane  :  all  which  was 
executed  at  his  own  cost  by  the  magnificent  Cosimo  de' 
Medici,  who  was  moved  to  this  partly  by  the  piety  which  he 
constantly  displayed  in  all  matters  touching  the  Christian 
faith,  and  partly  by  the  affection  which  he  bore  to  Don 
Timoteo  da  Verona,  a  most  excellent  preacher  of  the  above- 
mentioned  order,  in  whose  conversation  he  took  so  much 

This  Badia  is  exceedingly  simple,  almost  bare,  but  is  of  great  elegance. 
According  to  C.  von  Fabriczy,  op.  cit.,  the  Badia  of  Fiesole  is  probably  by 
Filippo,  the  Innocenti  Hospital  is  proved  to  be  his,  and  the  second  cloister  of 
Sta  Croce  greatly  resembles  his  work.  The  Loggia  of  San  Paolo  is  probably 
not  by  him. 


286 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


pleasure,  that,  for  the  better  enjoyment  thereof,  he  cansed 
several  rooms  to  be  constructed  in  the  monastery  for  his 
own  use,  and  occasionally  resided  in  them.  On  this  build- 
ing, Cosimo  expended  one  hundred  thousand  scudi,  as  may 
be  seen  on  an  inscription  still  remaining  there.  The  model 
for  the  fortress  of  Vicopisano  was  likewise  prepared  by  Fi- 
lippo,^^  who  moreover  designed  the  old  citadel  of  Pisa,  and 
by  whom  the  Ponte  a  Mare  was  also  fortified.  In  like 
manner  he  also  gave  the  design  for  the  new  citadel,  whereby 
the  bridge  was  closed  by  the  two  towers,  and  made  the 
model  for  the  fortifications  of  the  harbour  of  Pesaro.  Hav- 
ing then  returned  to  Milan,  he  prepared  the  designs  of 
various  works  for  the  duke,  among  others,  the  plans  for  the 
masters  who  were  constructing  the  cathedral  of  that  city. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo, 
in  Florence,  was  commenced  ^  by  the  inhabitants,  who  had 
chosen  the  prior  superintendent  of  the  building.  That  per- 
sonage made  profession  of  much  knowledge  in  that  matter, 
and  busied  himself  with  architecture  by  way  of  pastime. 
The  edifice  was  already  commenced,  with  columns  con- 
structed of  brick,  when  Giovanni  di  Bicci  de'  Medici,  who 
had  promised  the  inhabitants  and  the  prior  to  build  the 
sacristy  and  one  of  the  chapels  at  own  expense,  invited 
Filippo  one  day  to  dine  with  him.  After  conversing  on 
various  matters,  Giovanni  asked  what  he  thought  of  the 
commencement  made  at  San  Lorenzo.  Filippo  was  con- 
strained by  the  entreaties  of  Giovanni,  to  give  his  opinion, 
and  truth  compelled  him  to  point  out  many  faults,  the  con- 
sequence of  its  being  directed  by  a  person  who  had,  per- 
haps, more  learning  than  practical  experience  in  matters  of 
that  kind.  Thereupon  Giovanni  inquired  of  Filippo  if  a 
better  and  more  beautiful  fabric  could  be  devised,  to  which 
Filippo  replied,  Without  doubt,  and  I  wonder  that  you, 
who  are  the  chief  of  the  undertaking,  do  not  expend  a  few 
thousand  crowns,  and  build  such  a  church,  with  its  proper 
appurtenances,  as  might  be  worthy  of  the  place,  and  of  the 

61  In  1436,  62  In  1415.  Qr  rather  recommenced. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI  287 

many  noble  families  whose  sepulchres  are  there.  More- 
over, if  you  were  seen  to  commence  the  work,  these  families 
would  then  set  about  building  their  chapels  to  the  very  best 
of  their  ability,  and  the  more  readily,  as  knowing  that  no 
memorial  remains  of  our  existence  but  the  walls,  which 
bear  testimony  to  those  who  erected  them,  hundreds  or 
thousands  of  years  before."  Encouraged  by  the  words  of 
Filippo,  Giovanni  determined  to  construct  the  sacristy,  the 
principal  chapel,  and  the  whole  body  of  the  church,  al- 
though seven  families  only  were  willing  to  aid  in  the  build- 
ing, the  remainder  not  possessing  the  means.  Those  who 
took  part  in  the  work  were  the  Rondinelli,  Ginori,  Dalla 
Stufa,  Neroni,  Ciai,  Marignolli,  Martelli  and  Marco  di 
Luca,  whose  chapels  were  all  to  be  made  in  the  cross  aisle. 
The  sacristy  was  the  first  portion  of  the  structure  put  in 
progress,  and  afterwards  the  church  gradually  proceeded  ; 
but,  as  it  went  on  very  slowly,  the  remaining  chapels  were 
granted  by  degrees  to  various  Florentine  citizens.  The 
roof  of  the  sacristy  was  not  completed  when  Giovanni  de' 
Medici  departed  to  another  life,^  leaving  Cosimo  his  son, 
who  possessing  more  zeal  than  his  father,  and  taking  pleas- 
ure in  the  memorials  of  other  times,  caused  the  edifice  to 
proceed.  This  was  the  first  building  that  he  constructed, 
and  he  found  so  much  enjoyment  in  the  occupation,  that 
from  that  time  forward,  he  continued  constantly  building, 
even  to  his  death.  Cosimo  pressed  forward  the  work  in 
hand  with  infinite  zeal,  and  while  one  part  was  in  progress, 

''■'Giovanni  d'Averardo,  called  Bicci  de'  Medici,  never  intended  to  do  more 
than  build  the  sacristy,  with  two  chapels,  one  within  it,  and  one  close  to  it ; 
and  these  buildings  were  completed  when  Giovanni  died,  in  1428.  The  princi- 
pal chapel,  with  the  whole  body  of  the  church,  is  due  to  Cosimo,  Pater patrup, 
who,  seeing  that  the  chapter  could  not  be  brought  to  an  agreement  on  the 
subject,  pledged  himself  to  construct  the  foundations  of  these  two  works. 
The  sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo  may  be  called  the  first  building  of  the  Renais- 
sance. Filippo  did  not  throw  down  the  pre-existing  walls,  and  Giovanni 
d'Averardo  de'  Medici  paid  for  only  the  sacristy  and  its  dependency,  Cosimo 
for  the  Capella  Maggiore  and  Tribune.  The  interior  is  fine,  but  the  cupola  is 
poor  and  low.  Little  of  the  exterior  is  by  Filippo,  and  the  cloister  postdates 
him. 


288 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


he  caused  others  to  be  carried  to  completion.  So  much  pleas- 
ure did  he  take  in  the  work,  that  he  was  almost  always  present 
himself ;  and  his  eagerness  was  such  that,  while  Filippo 
erected  the  sacristy,  he  made  Donato  prepare  the  ornaments 
in  stucco,  with  the  stone  decorations  of  the  small  doors, 
and  the  doors  of  bronze.  In  the  centre  of  the  sacristy, 
used  by  the  priests  for  assuming  their  vestments,  Cosimo 
caused  the  tomb  of  his  father  Giovanni  to  be  constructed, 
beneath  a  broad  slab  of  marble,  supported  by  four  small 
columns  ;  and  in  the  same  place  he  made  a  sepulchre  for  his 
family,  wherein  he  separated  the  tombs  of  the  men  from 
those  of  the  women.  In  one  of  the  two  small  rooms  which 
are  on  each  side  of  the  sacristy,  having  the  altar  between 
them,  he  made  a  well  in  one  corner,  with  a  place  for  a 
lavatory.  The  whole  work,  in  short,  is  seen  to  have  been 
completed  with  much  judgment. Giovanni  and  the  masters 
first  employed,  had  determined  to  construct  the  choir  in  the 
centre,  and  beneath  the  tribune,  but  this  Cosimo  altered  at 
the  request  of  Filippo,  who  increased  the  size  of  the  principal 
chapel, — which  was  at  first  assigned  but  a  small  recess, — so 
that  the  choir  could  be  made  as  we  see  it  in  the  present  day. 
This  being  finished,  there  still  remained  the  central  tribune 
and  the  remainder  of  the  church,  which  tribune  and  the 
rest  was  not  vaulted  until  after  the  death  of  Filippo.  The 
length  of  this  church  is  one  hundred  and  forty-four  braccia.* 

55  M.  Miintz  {Les  Primitifs)  calls  San  Lorenzo  the  "  first  of  modern  sanctu- 
aries in  point  of  date."  He  notes  the  substitution  of  the  soffit  with  caissons  for 
the  pointed  Gothic  vaulting,  of  the  antique  colonnade  for  Gothic  piers,  the  in- 
terposition between  capitals  and  the  arches  which  bear  upon  them  of  an  inter- 
mediate entabulature  with  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice.  He  criticises  the 
"  somewhat  artificial  and  pretentious  appearance  "  given  by  this  disposition, 
which  is  nevertheless  directly  inspired  by  Roman  work.  Baron  von  Geymiiller 
affirms  that  the  actual  building  of  the  nave  of  San  Lorenzo  was  not  yet  com- 
menced at  the  time  of  Filippo's  death. 

6«  At  the  death  of  Brunelleschi  the  sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo  was  finished ;  but 
not  so  the  cross-aisle  of  the  church,  nor  yet  the  small  tribune,  which  was  com- 
pleted, both  within  and  without,  in  a  manner  deviating  widely  from  the 
plans  of  Brunelleschi  The  architect  who  ruined  his  idea  was  Antonio 
Manetti,  as  we  learn  from  a  letter  published  by  Gaye,  vol.  I.,  p.  167  et  seq. ; 
Milanesi  IL,  p.  371,  n.  1. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


289 


Many  errors  may  be  perceived  in  it :  among  others,  that  of 
the  pilasters  being  placed  on  the  ground,  instead  of  being 
raised  on  a  dado,  the  height  of  which  should  have  been 
equal  to  the  level  of  the  bases  supporting  the  columns, 
which  are  placed  on  the  steps  ;  since  the  consequence  of  the 
pilaster  being  shorter  than  the  column  is,  that  the  whole 
work  looks  stunted  and  ungraceful.  But  all  this  was  caused 
by  the  counsels  of  those  who  came  after  Filippo,  who  en- 
vied his  fame,  and  who  had  made  models  for  the  purpose  of 
opposing  his  views  during  his  lifetime.  For  these  they 
had  been  rendered  contemptible,  by  sonnets  which  Filippo 
had  written  ;  and  in  this  manner  they  avenged  themselves 
after  his  death,  not  in  this  work  only,  but  in  all  that  re- 
mained to  be  executed  by  them.  Filippo  left  the  model 
of  San  Lorenzo  complete,  and  a  part  of  the  capitular  build- 
ings for  the  priests  was  finished,  making  the  cloister  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  braccia  in  length. 

While  this  fabric  was  in  course  of  erection,  Cosimo  de' 
Medici  resolved  to  construct  his  own  palace,  and  forthwith 
imparted  his  intentions  to  Filippo,  when  the  latter  set  every 
other  occupation  aside,  and  made  him  a  large  and  very  beau- 
tiful model  for  the  building,  which  he  intended  to  erect  on 
the  Piazza,  opposite  to  San  Lorenzo,  proposing  that  it  should 
stand  entirely  isolated  on  every  side.  On  this  occasion  the 
genius  and  art  of  Filippo  were  so  nobly  displayed,  that 
Cosimo,  believing  the  building  would  be  too  vast  and  sump- 
tuous, could  not  resolve  to  have  it  executed,  but  he  aban- 
doned it  more  in  fear  of  envy,  than  because  he  was  deterred 
by  the  expense.  Whilst  this  model  was  in  progress,  Filippo 
used  to  say,  that  he  thanked  his  fortune  for  so  fair  an  op- 
portunity, since  he  had  now  a  house  to  build,  such  as  he  had 
desired  to  have  for  many  years  ;  but  when  he  heard  the  de- 
termination of  Cosimo  not  to  put  his  design  into  execution, 
he  broke  the  model,  in  his  anger,  into  a  thousand  pieces. 
And  deeply  did  Cosimo  repent  of  not  having  adopted  the 
plans  of  Filippo,  when  at  a  later  period  he  had  built  his 
palace  on  a  different  mo(^el ;  and  when  alluding  to  Filippo, 
19 


290 


FILIPPO  BKUNELLESCHI 


he  would  often  say,  that  he  had  never  spoken  with  a  man  of 
higher  intelligence  or  bolder  mind,  than  was  possessed  by 
Brnnellesco.  For  the  noble  family  of  the  Scolari,  Filippo 
made  the  model  of  that  most  fanciful  and  remarkable  church 
of  the  Angeli,^'  which  remained  incomplete  and  in  the  state 
wherein  we  now  see  it,  because  the  Florentines  spent  the 
money  (which  was  placed  in  the  Monte  for  the  expenses  of 
the  building),  for  certain  exigencies  of  their  city,  or  as  some 
say,  in  the  wars  which  they  then  carried  on  against  the 
Lucchesi,  and  wherein  they  also  expended  the  funds  which 
had  been  left  in  like  manner  by  Niccold  da  Uzzano,  to  erect 
the  college  of  the  Sapienza,  as  we  have  related  at  length 
elsewhere.  And  of  a  truth,  if  this  church  of  the  Angeli 
had  been  completed  according  to  the  model  of  Brunellesco, 
it  would  have  been  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  buildings 
in  Italy  ;  since  that  which  we  see  of  it  cannot  be  sufficiently 
praised.  The  drawings  for  the  ground-plan,  and  those  for 
the  completion  of  this  octagonal  temple  by  the  hand  of 
Filippo,  are  preserved  in  our  book  with  other  designs  of  the 
same  master. 

In  a  place  called  Ruciano,  outside  the  gate  of  San  Niccol6 
at  Florence,  Filippo  constructed  a  rich  and  magnificent 
palace  for  Messer  Luca  Pitti,  but  this  was  not  by  any  means 
equal  to  that  which  he  commenced  for  the  same  person 
within  the  city  of  Florence,  and  which  he  completed  to  the 
second  range  of  windows,  with  so  much  grandeur  and  mag- 
nificence, that  no  more  splendid  or  more  beautiful  edifice  in 
the  Tuscan  manner  has  yet  been  seen.^^   The  doors  of  this 

67  There  are  still  fine  remains  of  the  foundations  of  this  church  to  be  seen 
in  Via  degli  Alfani.  The  church  was  to  have  been  built  according  to  a  vow 
of  the  famous  Pippo  Spano  (degli  Scolari)  and  dedicated  to  the  Twelve 
Apostles. 

58  Vasari  and  the  Anonimo  Gaddiano  are  the  first  authors  who  attributed  the 
Pitti  to  Filippo.  This  Titanic  palace  has  been  greatly  changed  since  Brunel- 
leschi's  time.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  as  can  be  seen  in  a  view  of  Florence 
reproduced  in  M.  Miintz's  book  (Les  Primitifs^  p.  50),  the  first,  like  the  second 
story,  had  but  seven  windows  (see  the  sumptuary  laws  of  the  time),  and  M. 
Miintz  regrets  that  the  idea  of  giving  a  lesser  development  to  the  Becond 
Btory  ths^n  to  the  first  does  not  belong  to  Brunelleschi,    The  wings  of  the 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


291 


palace  are  double  ;  the  height  of  each  fold  being  sixteen 
braccia  and  the  breadth  eight  :  the  first  and  second  ranges 
of  windows  being  similar  to  the  doors  ;  the  vaultings  are 
also  double,  and  the  whole  building  is  of  such  high  art, 
that  richer,  more  beautiful,  or  more  magnificent  architect- 
ure cannot  be  imagined.  The  builder  of  this  palace  was 
the  Florentine  architect  Luca  Fanelli,  who  executed  many 
buildings  for  Filippo,  and  who  constructed  the  principal 
chapel  of  the  Nunziata  in  Florence,  for  Leon  Batista  Al- 
berti,  by  whom  it  was  designed  at  the  command  of  Ludovico 
Gonzaga.  Luca  Fanelli  was  afterwards  taken  by  Gonzaga 
to  Mantua,  where  he  executed  many  works,  and  having 
chosen  a  wife  in  that  city,  he  there  lived  and  died,  leaving 
heirs,  who,  from  his  name,  are  still  called  the  Luchi.  The 
palace  designed  for  Luca  Pitti  was  purchased,  not  many 
years  since,  by  the  most  illustrious  lady,  Leonora  of  Toledo, 
duchess  of  Florence,  advised  to  do  so  by  the  most  illustrious 
Signer,  the  duke  Cosmo,  her  consort,  and  she  so  greatly 
enlarged  the  property  in  all  directions,  that  she  succeeded 
in  forming  a  very  extensive  garden,^  partly  in  the  plain, 
partly  on  the  summit  of  the  hill,  and  partly  on  the  declivi- 
ties ;  this  she  filled  with  all  kinds  of  trees,  indigenous  and 
exotic,  very  finely  arranged,  and  caused  beautiful  groves  to 

lower  story  were  also  lacking  in  the  quattrocento.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
appears  quite  impossible  that  Filippo  should  ever  have  contemplated  any 
such  lame  and  impotent  conclusion  as  is  the  balustrade  which  runs  along  the 
top  of  the  palace.  The  French  critic,  in  his  admiration  for  the  Pitti  as  a 
whole,  wonders  equally  at  the  republican  citizen  who  dared  to  dream  of  build- 
ing such  a  palace,  and  at  the  artist,  "who,  in  the  most  refined  of  epochs, 
turned  backward  to  Cyclopean  construction."  He  considers  that  it  "  took  all 
the  character  of  a  Brunelleschi  to  make  him  disdain  the  most  modest  orna- 
ment" and  rest  in  the  conviction  "  that  his  conception  would  of  itself  suffice." 
According  to  C.  von  Fabriczy  not  Michelozzo's  Medici  palace,  but  Filippo's 
Pitti,  became  the  prototype  of  Florentine  palatial  architecture  ;  the  Palazzo 
della  Parte  Guelfa  greatly  influenced  architects,  and  the  Pazzi  Palace  became 
the  model  seignorial  habitation.  The  latter,  founded  circa  1445,  finished  circa 
1474,  was  probably,  though  not  certainly,  designed  by  Filippo.  At  RuBciano 
only  a  part  of  a  pre-existing  villa  was  rebuilt  by  Filippo  ;  the  fine  window  in 
the  court  is  not  his.  See  C.  von  Fabriczy,  op.  cit, 
»» The  famous  Boboli  gardens. 


292  FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 

be  planted  of  various  kinds  of  evergreens,  which  flourish  all 
the  year  round  ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  waters,  fountains, 
fish-ponds,  and  aviaries,  the  espaliers,  and  many  other 
things  truly  worthy  of  a  magnanimous  prince,  which  I  do 
not  describe,  because  it  is  impossible  that  he  who  does  not 
see  them  should  ever  imagine  their  grandeur  and  beauty. 
And  it  is  certain  that  duke  Cosmo  could  not  have  found 
any  undertaking  more  worthy  of  the  elevation  and  greatness 
of  his  mind  than  the  completion  of  this  palace,  which  would 
seem  to  have  been  erected  by  Messer  Luca  Pitti,  expressly 
for  his  most  illustrious  excellency.  Messer  Luca  left  it 
unfinished,  being  constantly  occupied  with  his  labours  for 
the  state ;  and  his  heirs,  not  having  means  wherewith  to 
complete  the  building,  were  glad  to  give  it  up  to  the 
duchess,  who  continued  to  expend  money  on  it  during  the 
whole  of  her  life,  but  not  to  such  an  amount  as  to  give  hope 
that  it  could  be  quickly  finished.  It  is  true  that  she  had 
intended,  as  I  have  heard,  to  expend  40,000  ducats  on  it  in 
one  year  only,  if  she  lived,  to  the  end  that  she  might  see  it 
if  not  finished,  at  least  on  the  way  to  completion.  The 
model  of  Filippo  has  not  been  found,  and  his  excellency  has 
therefore  had  another  made  by  Bartolommeo  Ammanati,  an 
excellent  sculptor  and  architect.^  It  is  according  to  this 
that  they  are  now  working,  and  a  great  part  of  the  inner 
court  is  already  completed  in  rustic  work,  similar  to  that  of 
the  outer  court.  And  of  a  truth,  whoever  refiects  on  the 
grandeur  of  this  work  will  be  amazed  that  the  mind  of 
Filippo  was  capable  of  conceiving  a  building  so  vast  and  so 
truly  magnificent,  not  only  in  its  external  form,  but  also  in 
the  distribution  of  all  its  apartments.  Of  the  views  from 
this  palace,  which  are  most  beautiful,  I  say  nothing,  nor 
yet  of  the  pleasant  hills  which  form  almost  an  amphitheatre 
around  the  edifice,  in  the  direction  of  the  city  walls,  be- 

According  to  Baldinucci,  quoted  by  Milanesi,  a  part  of  the  design  pre- 
pared by  Giulio  Parigi  was  also  executed,  while  that  of  Paolo  Falcon  etti  was 
found  too  costly  for  execution.  The  modern  architects,  Paoletti,  Poccianti, 
and  Cacialli,  have  also  made  additions. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


293 


cause  it  would  occupy  me  too  long,  as  I  have  said,  to  de- 
scribe these  things  in  full,  nor  could  any  one  who  has  not 
seen  it,  imagine  how  greatly  this  palace  is  superior  to  every 
other  royal  edifice. 

It  is  said  that  the  machinery  for  the  paradise  of  San 
Felice  in  Piazza,  in  the  same  city,  was  invented  by  Filippo 
for  the  festival  of  the  Annunciation,  which  was  solemnized 
by  a  Representation,  in  the  manner  customary  in  old  times 
among  the  Florentines.  This  was  without  doubt  a  most 
extraordinary  thing,  giving  proof  of  great  ability  and  indus- 
try in  him  who  was  the  inventor,  since  there  was  the  spec- 
tacle of  a  heaven  full  of  living  figures  moving  about  on 
high,  with  an  infinity  of  lights,  which  appeared  and  disap- 
peared almost  as  does  the  lightning.  All  who  could  have 
described  these  things  from  their  own  knowledge  are  now 
dead,  and  the  machinery  itself  is  destroyed  without  a  hope 
that  it  can  ever  be  reconstructed,  seeing  that  the  place  is 
no  longer  inhabited  as  of  old  by  the  monks  of  Camaldoli, 
but  by  the  nuns  of  San  Pier  Martire ;  and  also  because  the 
monastery  of  the  Carmine  suffered  considerable  injury  from 
that  machinery,  which  pulled  down  the  timbers  of  the 
roof.  I  will  therefore  not  refuse  tlie  labour  of  describing  it 
exactly  as  it  was.  Filippo,  then,  for  the  purposes  of  this 
representation,  had  suspended  between  two  of  the  beams 
which  support  the  roof,  the  half  of  a  globe,  resembling  an 
empty  bowl,  or  rather  the  basin  used  by  barbers,  with  the 
edge  downwards ;  this  half -globe  was  formed  of  liglit  and 
thin  planks,  secured  to  an  iron  star,  passing  round  the  outer 
circle  ;  they  were  narrowed  towards  the  centre,  the  wliole 
being  held  in  equilibrium  by  a  large  ring  of  iron,  around 
which  moved  the  iron  star,  whereby  the  planks  forming 
the  basin  were  supported.  The  whole  machine  was  upheld 
by  a  strong  beam  of  pine-wood,  well  bound  with  iron,  and 
placed  across  the  main  timbers  of  the  roof :  to  this  beam 
was  fastened  the  ring  which  held  the  basin  suspended  and 
balanced  ;  the  latter,  as  seen  from  below,  really  presenting 
the  appearance  of  a  heaven.    Within  the  lower  edge  of  the 


294 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


machine  were  then  fixed  brackets  of  wood,  exactly  large 
enough  to  give  space  for  the  feet  to  stand  on,  but  not 
larger,  above  each  of  these,  at  the  height  of  a  braccia,  was 
provided  an  iron  fastening ;  this  was  done  to  the  end  that  a 
child  of  about  twelve  years  old  might  be  placed  on  each 
bracket,  and  the  child  was  so  bound  to  the  iron  above  that 
it  could  not  possibly  fall  even  if  it  would.  These  chil- 
dren, twelve  in  number,  being  arranged  as  we  have  said, 
were  dressed  to  represent  angels  with  gilded  wings,  and  hair 
formed  of  gold  threads ;  they  took  each  other  by  the  hand 
at  the  proper  time,  and  waving  their  arms  appeared  to  be 
dancing,  the  rather  as  the  basin  was  perpetually  moving 
and  turning  round.  Within  this  concave  frame-work  and 
above  the  heads  of  the  angels  were  fixed  three  chaplets  or 
garlands  of  lights,  formed  of  minute  lamps  that  could  not 
be  overturned,  and  which  when  seen  from  below,  had  the 
appearance  of  stars.  The  brackets  also,  being  covered 
with  cotton  wool,  presented  the  semblance  of  clouds. 
From  the  ring  above  described,  there  proceeded  a  very 
strong  iron  bar  with  a  second  ring,  to  which  was  affixed  a 
slender  cord,  descending  towards  the  ground,  as  shall  be 
explained  in  due  time ;  this  strong  bar  of  iron  had  eight 
branches  or  arms,  which  revolved  in  an  arc  sufficiently 
large  to  fill  the  space  of  the  hollow  basin  :  at  the  end  of 
each  arm  was  a  stand  about  the  size  of  a  plate,  and  on  every 
stand  was  placed  a  child  of  about  nine  years  old,  well 
secured  to  an  iron  fixed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  branch  or 
vane,  but  yet  in  such  a  manner  that  it  could  turn  itself  in  all 
directions.  These  eight  angels,  upheld  by  the  above-men- 
tioned iron  bar,  were  gradually  lowered  by  means  of  a  small 
windlass,  and  descended  from  the  hollow  of  the  circular 
space,  to  the  depth  of  eight  braccia  below  the  level  of  the 
wood-work  supporting  the  roof,  in  such  sort  that  they  could 
be  seen  without  concealing  from  view  the  twelve  angels  within 
the  edge  of  the  machine.  In  the  centre  of  this  bouquet  of 
the  eight  angels  (for  so  was  it  very  appropriately  called) 
was  a  halo  or  glory  {Mandorla)  of  copper,  wherein  were 


FILIPPO  BRTTNELLESCHI 


295 


numerous  perforations,  displaying  small  lamps  placed  on  an 
iron  in  the  form  of  a  tube,  which,  on  the  pressing  down  of 
a  spring,  was  concealed  within  the  copper  mandorla "  ; 
but  when  the  spring  was  not  pressed,  all  the  lamps  ap- 
peared lighted  through  the  apertures  formed  for  that  pur- 
pose in  the  mandorla.  When  the  group  of  angels  had 
reached  its  appointed  place,  this  mandorla,  which  was  sus- 
pended by  a  small  cord,  was  moved  softly  down  by  means 
of  another  little  windlass,  and  descended  gradually  to  the 
platform,  whereon  the  representation  was  exhibited.  At 
that  point  of  the  platform  where  the  mandorla  was  to  rest, 
an  elevated  place  in  the  manner  of  a  throne  was  erected, 
with  four  steps  ;  in  the  centre  of  this  elevation  was  an  open- 
ing into  which  the  pointed  iron  of  the  mandorla  descended  : 
the  latter  having  reached  its  place,  a  man  concealed  beneath 
the  throne  fixed  it  securely,  without  being  seen  himself,  by 
means  of  a  bolt,  so  that  it  rested  firmly  on  its  own  basis. 
Within  the  mandorla  was  a  youth  of  about  fifteen  years  old, 
in  the  guise  of  an  angel ;  he  was  bound  by  an  iron  cincture 
to  the  centre  of  the  mandorla,  and  secured  at  the  foot  of  it 
also  in  such  a  manner  that  he  could  not  fall  ;  but  to  admit 
of  his  kneeling  before  the  Virgin,  the  iron  fastenings  were 
divided  into  three  pieces,  which  glided  one  within  the  other 
with  an  easy  motion,  as  the  youth  knelt  down.  Then, 
when  the  houquet  of  angels  had  descended,  and  the  man- 
dorla was  fixed  into  its  place,  the  man  who  had  secured  it 
by  means  of  the  bolt,  also  unfastened  the  iron  whicli  sup- 
ported the  angel,  whereupon  he,  having  issued  forth,  pro- 
ceeded across  the  platform,  and  approaching  the  spot  wliere 
sat  the  Virgin,  he  made  his  salutation  and  uttered  the  an- 
nouncement. He  then  returned  into  the  mandorla,  and 
the  lights,  which  had  been  extinguished  on  his  leaving  it, 
having  been  rekindled,  the  iron  which  supported  him  was 
again  secured  by  the  man  concealed  below,  that  wliich  held 
the  mandorla  to  its  place  was  taken  away,  and  the  latter 
was  drawn  up  ;  while  the  angels  of  the  houquet,  and  those 
who  were  moving  about  in  the  heaven  above,  all  singing, 


296 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESOHI 


produced  such  an  effect,  that  the  show  really  appeared  to 
be  a  paradise.  And  this  illusion  was  the  more  effectually 
produced,  because,  in  addition  to  the  above-described  choir 
of  angels,  and  those  forming  the  group,  there  was  a  figure 
representing  God  the  Father,  placed  near  the  convex  side 
of  the  basin,  and  surrounded  by  other  angels  similar  to 
those  already  described  ;  all  arranged  by  the  help  of  irons 
in  such  a  manner,  that  the  circle  representing  heaven,  the 
group  of  angels,  the  figure  of  God  the  Father,  the  mandorla 
with  its  infinitude  of  light,  and  the  exquisite  accords  of 
soft  music,  did  truly  represent  paradise.  Then  to  all  this 
was  added,  that  Filippo,  for  the  purpose  of  permitting  the 
heaven  to  open  and  shut,  had  caused  two  large  folding- 
doors,  each  five  braccia  high,  to  be  constructed,  and  had 
provided  them  with  iron  or  copper  rollers,  running  in 
groves  beneath,  and  these  last  were  well  oiled,  so  that  when 
a  slender  cord  placed  on  each  side  was  drawn  by  a  little 
windlass,  the  doors  open  or  shut  as  was  desired ;  the  two 
folds  gradually  retiring  from  or  closing  towards  each  other 
by  means  of  the  channels  beneath  as  aforesaid.  These  doors, 
thus  constructed,  served  a  double  purpose,  the  one  that 
when  they  were  moved  their  weight  caused  them  to  produce 
a  sound  resembling  thunder,  the  other,  that  when  closed 
they  formed  a  stage  whereon  to  arrange  and  make  ready  the 
angels,  and  prepare  many  other  things  which  it  was  neces- 
sary to  do  out  of  sight.  This  machinery  then,  constructed 
as  has  been  described,  was  invented  by  Filippo,  with  many 
other  engines  of  various  kinds,  although  there  are  those 
who  affirm  that  they  had  been  invented  long  before.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  was  proper  to  speak  of  them,  seeing 
that  they  are  altogether  gone  out  of  use. 

But  we  will  now  return  to  Filippo,  whose  name  and  re- 
nown had  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  he  was  sent  for 
from  distant  places  by  whomsoever  proposed  to  erect  im- 
portant fabrics,  all  desiring  to  have  their  designs  and  models 
from  the  hand  of  so  great  a  master,  insomuch  that  powerful 
means  were  used,  and  much  friendship  displayed,  for  that 


i'lLIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


purpose.  Thus  the  Marquis  of  Mantua,  among  others,  de- 
siring to  secure  the  services  of  Filippo,  wrote  with  very 
earnest  instances  respecting  him  to  the  Signoria  of  Florence, 
by  whom  the  master  was  accordingly  sent  to  the  marquis  in 
that  city,  where,  in  the  year  1445,  he  prepared  designs  for 
the  construction  of  dams  on  the  Po,  with  other  works, 
according  to  the  wish  of  that  prince,  who  caressed  him  in- 
finitely, being  wont  to  say  that  Florence  was  as  worthy  to 
number  Filippo  among  her  citizens  as  he  to  have  so  noble 
and  beautiful  a  city  for  his  birthplace.  At  Pisa,  in  like 
manner,  Filippo  gave  proof  of  his  pre-eminence  to  the 
Count  Francesco  Sforza  and  Niccolo  da  Pisa,  whom  lie  had 
surpassed  in  the  construction  of  certain  fortifications,  and 
who  commended  him  in  his  presence,  saying,  that  if  every 
state  possessed  a  man  like  Filippo,  all  might  live  in  peace, 
without  the  use  of  arms.  In  Florence,  also,  Filippo  gave 
the  design  for  the  Barbadori  Palace,  near  the  tower  of  the 
Rossi,  in  the  suburb  of  San  Jacopo,  but  this  was  not  put  in 
execution.  He  likewise  prepared  the  design  for  the  palace 
of  the  Giuntini,  on  the  piazza  d'Ognissanti  sopr'  Amo.  At  a 
subsequent  period,  the  leaders  of  the  Guelphic  party,  in 
Florence,  determined  to  erect  a  building  wherein  there  should 
be  a  hall,  with  an  audience  chamber,  for  the  transaction  of 
their  affairs  ;  and  the  care  of  this  they  entrusted  to  Fran- 
cesco della  Luna.  The  work  was  commenced,  and  was  raised 
ten  braccia  from  the  ground,  many  faults  having  been  com- 

According  to  Dr.  Richter,  Brunelleschi  was  allowed  by  the  wardens  to 
visit  Mantua  in  1431  and  1486.  Bocchi,  Bellezzc  di  Firenze,  p.  500,  relates 
that  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  having  requested  an  architect  from  Cosimo  de'  Med- 
ici, for  certain  works  which  he  desired  to  execute,  the  latter  sent  him  Brunel- 
leschi, accompanied  by  a  letter  written  with  his  own  hand,  wherein  he  says, 
"I  send  your  Holiness  a  man  of  such  immense  capacity  that  he  would  have 
confidence  enough  to  turn  the  world  back  on  its  axis."  Having  read  the  letter, 
his  Holiness  cast  a  glance  at  Filippo,  and  seeing  him,  as  he  was,  so  small  and 
insignificant  in  appearance,  he  said  with  a  pleasant  manner,  "  This  is  the  man 
whose  courage  would  suffice  to  turn  the  world  about."  Whereupon  Filippo 
replied,  "  Let  your  Holiness  only  give  me  the  point  whereon  I  can  fix  my  lever, 
and  I  will  then  show  what  I  can  do."  Bocchi  subsequently  adds,  that  Filippo 
returned  to  Florence  loaded  with  honors  and  rich  rewards. 


m 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


mitted  in  it,  when  it  was  put  into  the  hands  of  Filippo,  who 
constructed  the  palace  in  the  form,  and  with  the  magnificence 
which  we  now  see.  In  the  execution  of  this  work,  Filippo 
had  to  compete  with  the  said  Francesco,  who  was  favoured  by 
many,  and  this  was  indeed  the  case  with  Filippo  while  he 
lived ;  he  was  ever  striving,  now  with  this  man,  and  now 
with  that ;  for  many  were  hostile  to  him,  and  contending 
with  him,  and  causing  him  perpetual  vexations  ;  nay,  they 
not  unf requently  sought  to  gain  honour  for  themselves  from 
his  designs,  by  which  he  was  ultimately  brought  to  refuse  to 
show  anything  or  to  confide  in  any  one.  The  hall  of  the 
above-named  palace  is  no  longer  used  by  those  captains  of  the 
Guelphs  before  mentioned,  seeing  that  the  flood  of  1557  hav- 
ing done  much  injury  to  the  papers  of  the  Monte,  Duke  Co- 
simo,  for  the  greater  security  of  the  writings  appertaining 
thereto,  and  which  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  removed 
them,  together  with  the  offices  of  the  institution,  to  that  hall. 
But,  to  the  end  that  the  ancient  staircase  of  this  palace  should 
still  serve  for  the  office  of  the  captains,  who  had  given  up 
the  hall,  which  is  used  as  the  Monte,  and  had  retired  to  a  dif- 
ferent part  of  the  palace,  his  excellency  gave  commission  to 
Giorgio  Vasari  for  the  construction  of  the  very  commodious 
staircase  which  now  ascends  to  the  said  hall  of  the  Monte, 
and  which  was  erected  by  him  accordingly.  A  balcony  of 
wrought  stone  has  also  been  executed,  from  a  design  by  the 
same  architect,  and  this  has  been  placed,  according  to  the 
intentions  of  Filippo,  on  fluted  columns  of  a  hard  grey  stone, 
called  macigno. 

In  the  church  of  Santo  Spirito,  the  sermons  during  Lent 
were  one  year  preached  by  Maestro  Francesco  Zoppo,  then 
very  popular  with  the  Florentines.  In  these  sermons  the 
preacher  had  earnestly  recommended  the  claims  of  the  con- 
vent and  schools  for  youth,  but  more  particularly  those  of 
the  church  which  had  been  burnt  about  that  time,  to  the 
consideration  of  his  hearers.      Thereupon  the  chief  per- 

«2  The  church  was  not  burnt  at  that  time — during  the  life  of  Brunelleschi, 
that  is — but  in  1471,  which  was  many  years  after  his  death.    Before  the  old 


FILIPPO  BEUNELLESCHI  299 

sons  of  that  quarter,  Lorenzo  Ridolfi,  Bartolommeo  Corbi- 
nelli,  Neri  di  Gino  Oapponi,  and  Goro  di  Stagio  Dati,  with 
many  other  citizens,  obtained  an  order  from  the  Signoria  for 
the  rebuilding  of  the  church  of  Santo  Spirito,  of  which  they 
made  Stoldo  Frescobaldi  proved itor.  Frescobaldi,  moved  by 
the  interest  he  felt  in  the  old  church,  the  high  altar  and 
,  principal  chapel  of  which  had  been  constructed  by  his  fam- 
ily, devoted  extraordinary  care  to  the  building  ;  nay,  from 
the  very  beginning,  and  before  the  funds  had  been  gathered 
from  those  who,  having  chapels  and  burial-places  in  the 
church,  were  proportionally  taxed  for  the  purpose,  he  ex- 
pended many  thousands  of  scudi,  of  his  own  money,  but 
which  were  afterwards  repaid  to  him. 

When  the  matter  had  been  fully  resolved  on,  Filippo  was 
sent  for,  and  he  made  a  model,  comprising  all  the  requisites 
demanded  for  the  due  completion  of  a  Christian  temple, 
whether  as  regards  utility  or  beauty.  On  this  occasion 
Filippo  laboured  much  to  persuade  those  who  had  authority 
in  the  matter,  to  agree  that  an  entire  change  should  be 
made  in  the  ground  plan  of  the  edifice,  which  he  would 
have  turned  completely  round,  and  this  because  he  greatly 
desired  that  the  space  in  front  of  the  Church  should  extend 
to  the  shores  of  the  Arno,  to  the  end  that  he  who  arrived  in 
the  city  from  Genoa,  and  the  Riviera,  or  from  the  Pisan 
and  Lucchese  territories,  should  behold  the  magnificence  of 
this  fabric.  But  as  many  of  the  citizens,  unwilling  to  have 
their  houses  destroyed,  refused  to  agree  to  this,  the  desire  of 
Filippo  did  not  take  effect.^    He  made  the  model  of  the 

church  was  destroyed,  and  at  the  instigation  of  the  preacher,  Fra  Francesco 

Mellini,  a  new  one  had  been  commenced,  much  larger,  and  more  magnificent 
than  the  former,  but  in  immediate  proximity  to  it,  and  according  to  the 
design  of  Brnnelleschi.  Stoldo  Frescobaldi  had  been  chosen  proveditor  as 
early  as  1483.  The  conflagration  then  caused  the  building  to  be  accelerated, 
insomuch  that  it  was  ready  for  the  performance  of  Divine  service  in  the  year 
1481.  See  Moreni,  Vita  del  Brunellesco,  p.  99,  note  2,  quoted  by  Milanesi, 
II. ,  p.  380,  note  2,  from  Moreni's  Vita  del  Brunellesco. 

03  Any  visitor  to  Florence  can  see  that  the  disposition  suggested  by  Brimel- 
leschi  for  tho  Church  of  the  Santo  Si)ii  ito  would  have  greatly  added  to  the 
architectural  dignity  of  that  portion  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Amo. 


300 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


church,  therefore,  together  with  the  buildings  for  the  dwell- 
ing-place of  the  monks,  in  the  form  that  we  now  see  it. 
The  length  of  the  church  was  one  hundred  and  sixty-one 
braccia,  the  breadth  fifty-four,  and  the  whole  building  is  so 
well  ordered  that  no  work  could  be  constructed,  which,  for 
the  arrangement  of  the  columns  and  other  ornaments,  would 
be  richer,  more  graceful,  or  more  airy  than  is  this  church 
of  Santo  Spirito.^^  Nay,  were  it  not  for  the  malevolence  of 
those  who  perpetually  ruin  the  beautiful  commencement  of 
things  for  the  purpose  of  appearing  to  understand  more 
than  others,  it  would  now  be  the  most  perfect  church  in 
Christendom.  Even  as  it  is,  the  building  is  more  graceful 
and  more  conveniently  arranged  than  any  other,  although 
it  was  not  completed  according  to  the  model ;  this  we  per- 
ceive from  the  beginnings  of  certain  parts  of  the  outside, 
which  have  not  been  executed  in  accordance  with  the  order 
observed  within  ;  as  it  appears  that  the  model  would  have 
had  the  doors  and  the  framework  of  the  windows  to  do. 
There  are  some  errors  which  I  will  not  enumerate,  and 
which  are  attributed  to  Filippo,  but  it  is  not  to  be  believed 
that  he  would  have  endured  their  presence  had  he  com- 
pleted the  building,  seeing  that  all  his  works  are  brought 
to  perfection  with  great  judgment,  prudence,  ingenuity,  and 
art,  and  that  this  building  itself  proves  him  to  have  pos- 
sessed a  genius  truly  sublime. 

Filippo  was  truly  facetious  in  conversation,  and  acute  in 
repartee,  as  was  shown  on  a  certain  occasion,  when  he  de- 
sired to  vex  Lorenzo  Grhiberti,  who  had  bought  a  farm  at 
Monte  Morello,  called  Lepriano,  on  which  he  spent  double 
the  income  that  he  derived  from  it.  This  caused  Lorenzo 
great  vexation,  insomuch  that  he  sold  the  farm.  Filippo 

The  Santo  Spirito,  commenced  during  Brunelleschi's  life,  was  finished  long 
after  his  death.  Critics  find  many  faults  in  its  architecture.  Still  it  is  at 
once  noble  and  beautiful,  the  composition  of  columns  about  the  intersection 
of  nave  and  transepts  being  especially  striking  and  relieving  by  its  pictu- 
resqueness  the  severity  of  the  nave.  If  some  richness  of  color  had  obtained 
here  instead  of  the  white  and  gray  of  the  stone  and  stucco,  a  wonderfully  rich 
and  beautiful  interior  would  have  resulted. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


301 


was  asked  about  that  time,  what  was  the  best  thing  that 
Lorenzo  had  done — being  expected  perhaps  to  answer  in 
terms  of  depreciation  respecting  the  works  of  Lorenzo  on 
account  of  the  enmity  between  them — when  he  replied,  "  To 
sell  Lepriano."  At  length  when  he  had  become  very  old 
(he  was  sixty-nine  years  of  age  that  is  to  say),  Filippo  de- 
parted to  a  better  life,  on  the  16th  of  April,  1446,  after 
having  laboured  much  in  the  performance  of  those  works,^ 
by  which  he  earned  an  honoured  name  on  earth,  and  ob- 
tained a  place  of  repose  in  heaven.  His  death  was  deeply 
deplored  by  his  country,  which  appreciated  and  esteemed 
him  much  more  when  dead  than  it  had  done  while  living. 
He  was  buried  with  most  honourable  and  solemn  obsequies 
in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  although  his  family  sepulchre 
was  in  San  Marco,  beneath  the  pulpit  and  opposite  the  door, 
where  may  be  found  his  escutcheon,  bearing  two  fig-leaves 
with  waves  of  green  on  a  field  of  gold.  His  family  belongs  to 
the  Ferrarese,  and  came  from  Ficaruolo,  a  castle  on  the  Po, 
and  this  is  expressed  by  the  leaves,  which  denote  the  place, 
and  by  waves  which  signify  the  river.  The  death  of  Filippo 
was  mourned  by  large  numbers  of  his  brotlier  artists,  more 
especially  by  those  who  were  poor,  and  whom  he  constantly 
aided  and  benefited.  Thus  living  in  so  Christian-like  a  man- 
ner he  left  to  the  world  the  memory  of  his  excellence,  and  of 
his  extraordinary  talents.  To  me  it  appears  that  from  the 
time  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the  present,  there  has 
appeared  no  more  excellent  or  more  admirable  genius  than 
Filippo  ;  and  he  is  all  the  more  worthy  of  praise,  because  in 
his  time  the  German  (Gothic)  manner  was  in  high  favour 
through  all  Italy,  being  that  in  practice  among  all  the  elder 
artists,  as  may  be  seen  in  numerous  edifices.  It  was  Filippo 
who  revived  the  use  of  the  antique  cornices,  and  who  re- 
stored the  Tuscan,  Corinthian,  Doric,  and  Ionic  orders  to 
their  primitive  forms.  He  had  a  disciple  from  Borgo  a 
Buggiano,  who  was  called  II  Buggiano  ;  it  was  this  artist 
who  executed  the  lavatory  of  the  sacristy  of  Santo  Reparata, 

«^  Filippo  never  married,  but  adopted  a  son. 


302 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


where  tliere  are  figures  of  children,  by  whom  the  water  is 
poured  forth.  He  also  executed  the  portrait  of  his  master, 
taken  from  the  life,  in  marble,  and  this,  after  the  death  of 
Brunellesco,  was  placed  in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  at  the 
door  on  the  right  hand  as  you  enter  the  church  ;  where 
there  is  still  to  be  seen  the  following  epitaph,  placed  there 
on  the  part  of  the  public  to  do  him  honour,  after  his  death, 
as  he  had  done  honour  to  his  country  during  his  life. 

"  Quantum  PMlippus  arckitecius  arte  Dcedalea  valuerit,  cum  hujus 
celeberrimi  templi  mira  testudo,  turn  plures  alice  divino  ingenio  ab  eo 
adinventcB  machince  documento  esse  possunt.  Quapropter  ab  eximias 
sui  animi  dotes,  singularesque  virtutes  XV  KaL  Maias  anno  mccccxlvi 
ejus  b.  m.  corpus  in  hac  humo  supposiia  grata  patria  sepeliri  jussit.'^  * 

To  do  the  master  the  greater  honour,  the  two  inscriptions 
following  were  added  by  others. 

"  Filippo  f  Brunellesco  aniiqucd  architecturcB  instauratori  s.  P.  q.  p. 
eivi  suo  benemerenti." 

The  second  was  written  by  Gio.  Battista  Strozzi,  and  is 
as  follows : 

**  Tal  sopra  sasso  sasso 

Di  giro  in  giro  eternamente  io  stnissi ; 
Che  cosi,  passo  passo 
Alto  girando,  al  ciel  mi  ricondussi." 

Filippo  was  unfortunate  in  some  respects ;  for  besides 
that  he  had  always  to  be  contending  with  one  or  another 
many  of  his  buildings  remained  unfinished  in  his  own  time, 

*  This  inscription  is  written  as  follows  in  the  Milanesi  edition  : 

D.  S. 

Quantum  PMlippus  architectus  arte  dcedalce  valuerit  ;  cum  huius  celeber- 
rimi templi  mira  testudo^  tum  plures  machince  divino  ingenio  ah  eo  adin- 
ventce  documento  esse  possunt.  Quapropter  ah  eximias  sui  animi  dotes, 
singularesque  virtutes  eius  b.  m.  corjms,  xv  Kal.  M^aias  anno  MCCCCXLVI  in 
hcec  humo  supposita  grata  patria  sepeliri  iussit. 

t  Read  Philippo  instead  of  Filippo. 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


303 


nor  have  they  all  been  completed  at  any  subsequent  period. 
Among  these  fabrics  was  that  of  the  church  of  the  Angeli, 
and  it  is  indeed  much  to  be  regretted,  that  the  monks  of 
the  Angeli  could  not  complete  the  building  commenced  by 
Filippo,  since  after  they  had  spent,  on  what  we  now  see, 
more  than  3,000  scudi,  received  partly  from  the  Guild  of 
the  Merchants,  and  partly  from  the  Monte,  where  the  funds 
were  placed,  the  capital  was  squandered,  and  the  church 
remained  unfinished  as  it  still  continues.^  Wherefore,  as  we 
have  remarked  in  the  life  of  Niccolo  da  Uzzano,  he  who 
desires  to  leave  a  memorial  of  his  existence  in  this  kind,  let 
him  do  it  for  himself  while  he  has  life,  and  not  confide  the 

•«  M.  MUntz  calls  Brunelleschi  the  Christopher  Columbus  of  modern  archi- 
tecture and  asserts  that  he  created  the  latter  as  a  complete  entity.  He 
adduces  as  the  dominant  trait  in  Brunelleschi's  style  his  extreme  sincerity, 
his  rejection  of  all  artifice  and  subterfuge,  and  his  instinctive  aversion  to  a 
habit,  not  uncommon  in  the  Renaissance,  of  hiding  poverty  of  form  under 
profusion  of  ornament.  A  mathematician  and  engineer  to  the  very  centre  of 
his  being  (his  most  famous  work,  the  Cupola  of  Florence,  is  quite  as  much  an 
engineering  feat  as  an  architectural  performance),  he  left  formula}  for  the 
resolution  of  all  problems,"  and  sinned,  if  at  all,  by  excess  of  sobriety  and 
gravity.  In  such  buildings  as  the  Badia  of  Fiesole  and  before  some  of  the 
lofjgie  of  Florence  one  feels  a  certain  coldness  that  is  for  a  moment  repelling, 
but  which  sets  a  key  of  severity  and  purity  in  which  the  Florentmes  were  en- 
abled to  proceed  to  the  elaboration  of  those  half-architectural,  half-sculptural 
compositions  (such  as  their  tombal  monuments)  which  in  their  faultless  and 
perfect  taste  were  unrivalled  outside  of  Tuscany  even  by  the  Italians  of  the 
Renaissance  and  were  equalled  only  by  the  Greeks.  M.  Muntz  emphasizes 
this  austerity  of  Brunelleschi,  and  while  admitting  that  the  Italian  architects 
of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  were  not  from  the  special  point  of 
view  of  architecture  worthy  to  untie  the  shoes  of  a  Brunelleschi,  an  Alberti, 
or  a  Bramante,  he  nevertheless  regrets  all  the  charming  decorative  fancies  that 
were  rejected  for  the  "three  orders,"  summing  up  his  regrets  and  his  appre- 
ciation in  the  statement  that  the  Italians  during  the  Gothic  period  had  "be- 
come a  people  of  decorators  ; "  and  that  Brunelleschi  made  them  "  again  a 
people  of  architects."  Michelet  in  his  Histoire  de  France  has  written  magnifi- 
cently of  Brunelleschi  as  of  one  who  "  had  the  soul  of  Dante  and  his  univer- 
sal mind,  but  ruled  and  guided  by  another  Beatrice,  the  divine  music  of  num- 
bers and  of  visible  rhythm.  Through  her  he  escaped  all  other  temptations, 
even  that  of  sculpture,  whose  virile  fascination  held  him  for  a  time.  Perspec- 
tive, mechanics,  and  all  the  varied  arts  of  the  engineer  guided  him  along  the 
road  which  he  followed  in  continuous  pursuit  of  that  Urania  who  imitates  upon 
earth  the  measure  of  heaven  and  the  eternity  of  the  handiwork  of  God. " 


804 


FILIPPO  BRUNELLESCHI 


charge  to  any  man,  for  what  we  have  said  of  this  church 
may  be  said  of  many  other  edifices  planned  by  Filippo 
Brunelleschi.^' 

•7  There  is  a  death-mask  of  Brunelleschi  in  the  office  of  the  director  in  the 
Opera  del  Duomo  at  Florence.  The  mask  is  reproduced  on  page  441  of  Les 
Primiiifs,  Histoire  de  V Art  pendant  la  Renaissance^  by  B.  Miintz.  It  was 
made  by  Brunelleschi' s  adopted  son,  Andrea  di  Lazzaro  Cavalcanti.  In  the 
year  1830  the  statues  of  the  two  architects  who  commenced  and  completed 
the  cathedral — Arnolfo  and  Brunelleschi — executed  by  Luigi  Pampaloni,  were 
placed  under  a  sort  of  loggia  upon  the  Piazza  del  Duomo. 


DONATO,  FLORENTINE  SCULPTORS 


[Born  1386 ;  died  1466.] 

Bibliography. — Eugene  Miintz,  Donatello^  Paris,  1885.  Semper,  Dona^ 
telWs  Vorldufer,  Leipsic,  1870,  and  Donatello,  seine  Zeit  und  Schule,  Vienna, 
1875 ;  new  edition,  1887.  Pre'vost,  Apergus  sur  Donatello  et  la  sculpture 
dite  realiste^  Paris,  1878.  Bode,  Donatello  d  Padoue,  Paris,  1883.  A.  Rosen- 
berg, in  the  Dohme  Series,  Francioni,  Elogio  di  Do7iatello  scultore,  Flor- 
ence, 1837.  C.  C.  Perkins,  Tuscan  Sculptors  and  Historical  Handbook 
of  Italian  Sculpture.  Bode,  Italienische  Portraitsculpturen  des  XVten 
Jahrhunderts  in  der  Kdniglichen  Museen  zu  Berlin^  Berlin,  1883.  Schmar- 
Bov^,  Donatella^  Leipsic,  1886.  Hugo  von  Tschudi,  Donatello  e  la  Critica 
moderna,  Turin,  1887.  Milanesi,  Catalogo  delle  Opere  di  Donatello  e  Bibli- 
ograjia  degli  autori  che  ne  hanno  scritti,  Florence,  1887.  J.  C.  Robinson,  A 
Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Works  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  London, 
1862.  Cesare  Guasti,  77  Pergamo  di  Donatello  pel  Duomo  di  Prato,  Florence, 
1887.  Marcel  Reymond,  Dojiatello,  Paris,  1890.  C.  von  Fabriczy,  Neue  Daten 
uher  Donatello  {Repertorium  fur  Kunst-  Wissenschaft  Band  XI Heft.  2). 
Sommario  Storico  e  Documenti  relativi  alle  celehri  cantorie  antiche  di  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore^  opere  di  Donatello  e  di  Luca  delta  Bobbia,  Florence,  1888. 
Centofanti  Tanfani,  Donatello  in  Pisa,  Pisa,  1889.  Max  Semrau,  Do?iatello^s 
Kanzeln  in  S.  Lorenzo,  Breslau,  1889.  D.  Gnoli,  Le  Opere  di  Donatello  in 
Roma  ;  Arch.  Stor.  delV  Arte,  I.,  p.  97.  Hans  Semper,  Donatello' s  Lcben  und 
Werke,  Innsbriick,  1887.  Also,  Zur  Sdkularfeier  der  Geburt  Donatello ; 
Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende  Kunst,  XXII.  C.  M.  Phillimore,  Donatello's  work 
at  Florence  (The  National,  Vol.  X.,  p.  59).  J.  Strygowsky,  Ei7i  neuer  Do- 
natello ;  Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende  Kunst,  XXII.  5.  A.  Gloria,  Donatello, 
Fiorenti7io,e  le  sue  opere  mirabili  nel  tempio  di  SanV  Antonio  in  Padova, 
Padua,  1895.  G.  B.  Toschi,  /  Bassorilievi  di  Donatello,  Nuova  Antologia, 
Vol.  lX.,fasc.  X.,  and  also  Le  statue  ed  i  busti  di  Donatello,  Vol.  X.,fasc. 
XIII.  Camillo  Boito,  La  Ricomposizione  delV  Altare  di  Donatello  ;  Archivio 
Storico  delV  Arte,  1895,  Vol.  I.  of  new  series,  fasc.  III.  Claude  Phillipps, 
Marmi  e  Bronzi  del  Rinascimento  Italiano  ;  Archivio  Storico  delV  Arte,  I.  97- 
101.  P.  Trombetta,  Donatello,  Rome,  1887.  G.  Angelini,  Donatello  e  le  sue 
Opere,  Florence,  1887.  Guido  Carocci,  Donatello,  Memorie,  Opere,  Florence, 
1887.  Alfredo  Melani,  Donatello,  Studio  Storico-Critico,  Florence,  1887. 
JSsposizione  Donatelliana  nel  r.  museo  nazionale  in  Firenze,  Florence,  1887. 

1  He  is  called  in  the  fiscal  register  of  1430  Donate  di  Niccolo  di  Betto  Bardi, 
and  is  commonly  known  as  Donatello  or  Donatello  Fiorentino. 


306 


DONATO 


Donatello  et  la  Facciata  di  S.  M.  del  Fiore.  Illmtrazione  Italiana,  May, 
3887. 

The  jubilee  of  the  fifth  centenary  of  Donatello  (1887)  called  forth  a  great 
number  of  works  upon  the  sculptor,  only  a  portion  of  which  are  included  in 
this  bibliography.  The  monographs  of  M.  MUntz  and  Herr  Semper  are  ex- 
ceedingly important,  as  are  indeed  many  other  of  the  above  works,  for  the 
Bculptor  has  been  a  subject  for  study  ever  since  the  sixteenth  century,  Boc- 
chi's  Eccellenza  della  Statua  di  San  Giorgio  di  Donatello  having  been  pub- 
lished in  1584. 

THE  sculptor  Donato,  called  by  his  contemporaries  Do- 
natello, and  who  subscribes  himself  thus  on  some  of 
his  works,  was  born  in  Florence  in  the  year  1386.^  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  arts  of  design  and  was  not  only  an 
excellent  sculptor  and  admirable  statuary,  but  was  beside 
very  skilful  in  works  of  stucco,  well  versed  in  the  study 
of  perspective,  and  highly  esteemed  as  an  architect.  The 
productions  of  Donatello  displayed  so  much  grace  and  ex- 
cellence, with  such  correctness  of  design,  that  they  were 
considered  to  resemble  the  admirable  works  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Komans  more  closely  than  those  of  any  other 
master  had  ever  done.  Nor  is  it  without  good  reason  that 
he  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  first  who  conducted  the  prac- 
tice of  historical  composition,  in  basso-rilievo,  into  the 
right  path  ;  his  works  of  that  kind  giving  proof  of  so  much 
thought,  power,  and  facility,  that  he  is  at  once  perceived  to 
have  had  the  true  intelligence  and  mastery  of  that  branch 
of  art,  which  he  exercised  with  extraordinary  success,  inso- 
much that  he  has  not  only  remained  unsurpassed  in  that 
style,  but  has  never  been  equalled  by  any  artist,  even  down 
to  our  own  days. 

Donatello  was  brought  up  from  early  childhood  in  the 
house  of  Kuberto  Martelli,  and  by  his  many  good  qualities, 
as  well  as  by  his  diligence  in  the  study  of  art,  he  secured 
the  affection,  not  only  of  Martelli  himself,  but  of  his  whole 
family.    This  master  produced  many  works  in  his  youth, 

'  The  year  of  Donatello's  birth  is  uncertain.  Gaye  in  his  Carteggio  cites 
three  different  dates  as  possible,  namely,  1382,  1386,  1387.  Milanesi  concurs 
with  the  commonly  accepted  date  of  1386. 


DONATO 


307 


but  because  they  were  many,  they  were  not  considered  to  be 
of  any  great  account.^  The  work  which  obtained  him  a 
name,  and  caused  him  to  be  known  for  what  he  really  was, 
was  an  Annunciation,  executed  in  the  stone  called  macigno,^ 
which  was  placed  near  the  altar  and  chapel  of  the  Caval- 
canti  family,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  in  Florence. 
Around  this  he  executed  an  ornament  in  the  grotesque  man- 
ner, with  a  basement  variously  decorated  and  finished  above 
in  round  arches.  He  added  six  ^  boys  who  are  bearing  gar- 
lands ;  they  appear  to  be  holding  each  other  closely  as  if  in 
fear  of  the  height,  and  to  be  thus  seeking  to  secure  them- 
selves.^ But  it  is  in  the  figure  of  the  Virgin  that  he  has 
principally  displayed  his  art.  Alarmed  by  the  unexpected 
appearance  of  the  angel,  her  movements  betray  timidity, 
yet,  with  great  sweetness  and  most  becoming  reverence,  she 
turns  herself  with  an  exquisite  grace  towards  him  who  is 
saluting  her,  insomuch  that  one  perceives  in  her  counte- 
nance the  humility  and  gratitude  due  to  one  who  presents 
an  unexpected  gift,  and  which  are  all  the  more  deeply  felt, 
the  more  important  is  the  benefit  received.  In  the  draper- 
ies of  this  madonna  moreover,  and  in  those  of  the  angel, 
Donato  exhibited  much  ability  ;  they  float  olf  from  the  fig- 
ures in  graceful  folds,  the  nude  forms  are  displayed  through 
them  with  masterly  skill,  and  prove  his  determination  to 

3  Masselli  states  that  Donatello  studied  painting  under  Lorenzo  di  Bicci, 
He  was  admitted  into  the  academy  of  St.  Luke  as  a  painter  in  1412. 

*  Macigno,  a  tine-grained  sandstone,  is  found  in  its  perfection  at  Fiesole,  and 
is  sometimes  called  Pietra  fcsulana  from  this  circumstance. 

*  It  is  still  in  place.  There  are  only  four  of  these  boys  (not  six).  They  are 
carved  in  wood ;  portions  of  the  macigyio  relief  of  the  Annunciation  are 
gilded. 

«  C.  C.  Perkins,  in  the  American  Archaeological  Journal  (I.  4)  gives  Do- 
natello the  credit  of  restoring  the  putto  (to  use  the  Italian  name),  which 
had  virtually  been  banished  since  the  days  of  antiquity.  Putti,  however,  were 
found  very  frequently  before  Donatello's  time;  see,  for  example,  the  frescoes  of 
the  Incoronata,  at  Naples ;  the  Triumph  of  Faith,  in  the  Campo  Santo,  at  Pisa, 
and  the  tomb  of  Ilaria  del  Carretto,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Lucca,  sculptured  by 
Jacopo  della  Quercia.  A  fragment  with  putti  in  relief  from  the  base  of  this 
tomb  was  sold  to  a  Florentine,  and  until  recently  was  in  the  Bargello  ;  but  it 
has  been  restored  by  Florence  to  the  city  of  Lucca. 


308 


DONATO 


discover  and  restore  that  beauty  of  ancient  art  which  had 
lain  concealed  for  so  many  years  :  he  gave  evidence,  in 
short,  of  so  much  power  and  art  in  this  work,  that  design, 
judgment,  and  practised  facility  in  the  use  of  the  chisel, 
could  produce  nothing  finer,  nor  could  better  be  desired. 
For  the  same  church,  beneath  the  roodloft,  and  beside  the 
historical  work  of  Taddeo  Gaddi,  Donate  executed  a  Cruci- 
fix in  wood,  on  which  he  bestowed  extraordinary  labour. 
When  the  work  was  completed,  believing  himself  to  have 
produced  an  admirable  thing,  he  showed  it  to  Filippo  di 
Ser  Brunellesco,  his  most  intimate  friend,  desiring  to  have 
his  opinion  of  it.  Filippo,  who  had  expected,  from  the 
words  of  Donato,  to  see  a  much  finer  production,  smiled 
somewhat  as  he  regarded  it,  and  Donato  seeing  this,  en- 
treated him  by  the  friendship  existing  between  them,  to  say 
what  he  thought  of  it.  Whereupon  Filippo,  who  was  ex- 
ceedingly frank,  replied,  that  Donato  appeared  to  him  to 
have  placed  a  Clown  on  the  cross,  and  not  a  figure  resem- 
bling that  of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  person  was  delicately 
beautiful,  and  in  all  its  parts  the  most  perfect  form  of  man 
that  had  ever  been  born.  Donato  hearing  himself  censured 
where  he  had  expected  praise,  and  more  hurt  than  he  was 
perhaps  willing  to  admit,  replied,  '^'^  If  it  were  as  easy  to  ex- 
ecute a  work  as  to  judge  it,  my  figure  would  appear  to  thee 
to  be  Christ  and  not  a  boor  ;  but  take  wood,  and  try  to  make 
one  thyself. " '  Filippo,  without  saying  anything  more,  re- 
turned home,  and  set  to  work  on  a  Crucifix,  wherein  he 
laboured  to  surpass  Donato,  that  he  might  not  be  con- 
demned by  his  own  judgment ;  but  he  suffered  no  one  to 
know  what  he  was  doing.  At  the  end  of  some  months,  the 
work  was  completed  to  the  height  of  perfection,  and  this 
done,  Filippo  one  morning  invited  Donato  to  dine  with  him, 
and  the  latter  accepted  the  invitation.  Thereupon,  as  they 
were  proceeding  together  towards  the  house  of  Filippo, 

''  Piglia  del  legno  efanne  una  tu.  Donatello's  Crucifix  is  now  in  the  Bardi 
chapel  of  Santa  Croce,  Brunelleschi's  is  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  No- 
vella. 


DONATO 


309 


they  passed  by  the  Mercato  Vecchio,  where  the  latter  pur- 
chased various  articles  *  and  giving  them  to  Donato,  said. 

Do  thou  go  forward  with  these  things  to  the  house  and 
wait  for  me  there,  1^11  be  after  thee  in  a  moment/'  Do- 
nato,  therefore,  having  entered  the  house,  had  no  sooner 
done  so,  than  he  saw  the  Crucifix,  which  Filippo  had  placed 
in  a  suitable  light.  Stopping  short  to  examine  the  work, 
he  found  it  so  perfectly  executed,  that  feeling  himself  con- 
quered, full  of  astonishment,  and,  as  it  were,  startled  out  of 
himself,  he  dropped  the  hands  which  were  holding  up  liis 
apron,  wherein  he  had  placed  the  purchases,  when  the 
whole  fell  to  the  ground,  eggs,  cheese,  and  other  things,  all 
broken  to  pieces  and  mingled  together.  But  Donato,  not 
recovering  from  his  astonishment,  remained  still  gazing 
in  amazement  and  like  one  out  of  his  wits  when  Filippo 
arrived,  and  inquired,  laughing,  ''What  hast  thou  been 
about,  Donato  ?  and  what  dost  thou  mean  us  to  have  for  din- 
ner, since  thou  hast  overturned  everything  ''I,  for  my 
part,''  replied  Donato,  ''  have  had  my  share  of  dinner  for 
to-day ;  if  thou  must  needs  have  thine,  take  it.  But 
enough  said  :  to  thee  it  has  been  given  to  represent  the 
Christ ;  to  me,  boors  only." 

In  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  in  the  same  city,  Donato 
executed  the  sepulchral  monument  of  the  pope,  Giovanni 
Coscia,  who  had  been  deposed  from  the  pontificate  by  the 
Council  of  Constance.  The  monument  to  Coscia  was  erected 
at  the  cost  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  who  was  the  intimate 
friend  of  the  deposed  pontiff.    For  this  tomb,*  Donato  exe- 

8  An  annotator  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  has  written  notes  on  the 
margin  of  a  copy  of  Vasari,  which  afterwards  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
painter  Cav.  Bossi,  remarks  that  "  in  those  days  painters  did  not  play  the 
gentleman  as  they  do  in  our  times." — Milanesi. 

The  annotator  did  not  remember  that  in  the  fifteenth  century  even  the  rich- 
est burghers,  like  Filippo  Strozzi,  did  their  own  marketing. 

»  M.  E.  Miintz,  in  his  Donatella,  claims  that  in  this  tomb  of  Pope  John 
XXIII, ,  Donatello  and  Michelozzo  (who  did  the  architectural  and  part  of  the 
sculptural  work)  created  the  genre  of  the  fifteenth-century  mausoleum. 
Michelozzo  was  Donatello's  co-laborer,  not  his  pupil ;  see  the  inscription  in 
the  Via  Calzaioliat  Florence,  "  In  these  houses  of  the  Adimari,  Donatello  and 


310 


DONATO 


cuted  the  figure  of  the  departed  pope  in  gilded  bronze,  with 
those  of  Hope  and  Charity,  in  marble,  all  with  his  own 
hand  ;  but  the  figure  of  Faith  was  done  by  his  pupil  Michel- 
ozzo.  In  the  same  church,  and  opposite  to  the  work  just 
described,  is  a  figure  of  Santa  Maria  Maddalena,  executed  in 
wood,  which  is  extremely  beautiful  and  admirably  finished  : 
the  penitent  is  seen  consumed  and  exhausted  by  her  rigid 
fastings  and  abstinence,  insomuch  that  every  part  exhibits 
the  perfection  of  an  anatomical  study,  most  accurately  repre- 
sented in  all  its  parts.  In  the  Mercato  Vecchio,  on  a  col- 
umn of  granite,  standing  entirely  apart,  there  is  a  figure  of 
Plenty,  by  Donate,  in  the  stone  called  macigno  forte,  which 
is  so  well  done,  that  it  has  always  been  held  in  the  highest 
estimation  by  artists  and  all  men  of  judgment  in  matters  of 
art.  11  The  column  on  which  this  figure  stands  was  formerly 
in  San  Giovanni,  where  the  remaining  columns  of  granite 
which  sustain  the  inner  cornice  are  still  in  their  places ;  the 
one  in  question  was  taken  away  and  a  fluted  column  was 
placed  in  its  stead,  on  which  there  once  stood  a  statue  of 
Mars,  erected  in  the  centre  of  the  temple  ;  but  this  last  was 
removed,  when  the  Florentines  were  converted  to  the  faith 
of  Jesus  Christ.  1^  The  same  master,  while  still  very  young, 
executed  a  figure  of  the  prophet  Daniel,  in  marble, for  the 
fa9ade  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  ;  and  at  a  later  period  he 
produced  one  of  San  Giovanni  Evangelista  seated ;  this 
figure  is  four  braccia  high,  it  is  clothed  in  very  simple  vest- 
ments and  is  much  celebrated.!^    In  the  same  place,  at  an 

Michelozzo  worked  together  like  brothers,"  etc.   The  tomb  was  probably  paid 
for  by  the  heirs  of  Coscia.    It  was  executed  1425-1433.    The  figures  of  Hope 
and  Charity,  as  well  as  of  Faith,  are  by  Michelozzo. 
1"  This  work  is  still  in  the  church. 

"  The  statue  remained  till  1721,  when,  having  been  badly  damaged  by 
weather,  a  figure  by  G.  B.  Foggini  was  set  in  its  place.  The  latter  was  removed, 
together  with  the  column,  in  the  recent  demolition  of  the  Mercato  Vecchio. 

12  The  column  did  not  come  from  the  Baptistery,  and  the  latter  was  never  a 
temple  of  Mars. 

»» Its  fate  is  unknown. 
It  was  executed  between  1408  and  1415,  and  is  now  in  the  Tribune  of  the 
Duomo.  in  a  very  dark  chapel,  where  it  can  only  be  seen  in  exceptionally  favor- 


DONATO 


311 


angle  of  the  building,  on  that  side  which  faces  the  Via  del 
Cocomero,  is  the  figure  of  an  old  man/^  between  two  col- 
umns, which  is  executed  more  in  the  manner  of  the  ancients, 
than  is  to  be  remarked  in  any  other  work  by  Donato ;  the 
head  of  this  statue  bearing  the  impress  of  the  thoughts  and 
cares  which  length  of  years  bring  to  those  who  are  exhausted 
by  time  and  labour.  Donato  likewise  executed  for  the  same 
church  the  decorations  of  the  organ,^^  which  stands  over  the 
door  of  the  old  sacristy,  where  are  those  figures,  so  boldly 
sketched  as  we  have  before  said,  that  in  looking  at  them  one 
almost  believes  them  really  to  live  and  move.  It  may  indeed 
be  truly  said  of  this  master,  that  he  effected  as  much  by  the 
superiority  of  his  judgment  as  by  the  skill  of  his  hand  ;  see- 
ing that  many  works  are  produced  which  appear  very  beau- 
tiful in  the  work-rooms  where  they  are  executed,  but  which, 
when  taken  thence  and  placed  in  another  situation,  in  a 

able  weather.  Few  reproductions  of  it  are  publishod,  and  the  statue  is  but 
little  known,  though  it  is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  sculptor. 

M.  Mlintz  says  of  it  in  his  Donatcllo  that  it  is  the  gravest  and  grandest 
figure  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  that  Michelangelo's  Moses  is  contained  in 
gr  rm  "  in  this  statue. 

'5  Probably  the  statue  called  Poggio  Bracciolini,  now  in  the  interior  of  the 
church.  Dr.  Bode  believes  that  this  statue  was  executed  between  1415  and 
14  i5,  in  which  case  it  could  not  be  the  portrait  of  Poggio.  Its  realism, 
forceful  and  subtle  at  once,  is  not  excelled  by  anything  which  came  from  the 
master's  chisel. 

"  This  organ-loft  was  taken  down  in  1()88,  and  the  architectural  portions 
were  laid  aside  and  forgotten.  The  bas-reliefs  of  dancing  Cupids  were  pre- 
seived  in  the  Uffiziand  afterwards  in  the  Bargollo.  Recently,  during  the  work 
upon  the  new  fagade.  of  the  Duomo.  there  were  found  in  a  subterranean  chapel, 
half-covered  by  rubbish,  the  consoles,  cornices,  etc.,  of  the  two  organ-lofts  of 
Uonatello  and  of  Luca  della  Robbia.  Certain  bronze  angels'  heads  and  orna- 
ments were  lacking,  but  enough  remained  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  two 
lofts  or  cantorie.  They  are  now  in  the  Museum  of  the  Opera  del  Duomo  (Mu- 
eeo  di  Sta.  Maria  del  Fiore)  ;  they  are  placed  opposite  each  other,  and  a  com- 
parison of  these  two  magnificent  singing  galleries  is  a  most  instructive  lesson 
in  decorative  art.  In  spite  of  the  exquisite  elegance  and  purity  of  lines 
in  Luca's  famous  reliefs,  Donatello's  organ-loft  is  superior  in  effect  as  a  deco- 
rative whole.  It  was  ordered  by  the  Commiine  of  Florence  in  1433.  For  de- 
tailed history  see  Sommario  Slorico  e  documenti  relativi  alle  celehri  cantorie 
anticJie  di  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore^  Opera  di  Donatello  e  di  Luca  della  Mob- 
hia,  Florence,  1887. 


312 


DONATO 


different  light  or  higher  position,  present  a  much  changed 
aspect,  and  turn  out  to  be  the  reverse  of  what  they  appeared. 
Donato,  on  the  contrary,  treated  his  figures  in  such  a  man- 
ner, that  while  in  the  rooms  where  they  were  executed  they 
did  not  produce  one-half  the  effect  which  he  had  in  fact  se- 
cured to  them,  and  which  they  exhibited  when  placed  in  the 
positions  for  which  they  had  been  calculated.  For  the  new 
sacristy  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  Donatello  gave  the  de- 
sign of  those  boys  who  support  the  festoons,  which  decorate 
the  frieze  ;  ^'  as  also  that  of  the  figures  executed  in  the  cir- 
cular window  beneath  the  cupola.  The  subject  is  the  Coro- 
nation of  Our  Lady,  and  the  design  of  the  work  is  greatly 
superior  to  that  of  the  paintings  in  other  windows,  as  is 
clearly  obvious.  Donate- also  produced  the  statue  of  St. 
Peter,  still  to  be  seen  in  San  Michele,  in  Orto,  in  the  same 
city  (Florence)  ;  an  admirable  figure,  full  of  spirit,  which 
he  executed  for  the  Guild  of  Butchers,  with  the  figure  of 
San  Marco, undertaken  in  the  first  instance  in  concert  with 
Filippo  Brunelleschi,  for  the  Guild  of  Joiners,^  but  which 
Donatello  afterwards  finished  by  himself,  an  arrangement 
to  which  Filippo  had  consented.  This  figure  was  executed 
by  Donato  with  so  much  judgment,  that  while  standing  on 
the  ground  its  excellence  was  not  obvious  to  those  who  were 
but  imperfectly  acquainted  with  matters  of  art,  insomuch 
that  the  syndics  of  the  Guild  were  not  disposed  to  have  it 
placed  in  the  situation  intended  for  it ;  whereupon  Donato 
bade  them  suffer  him  to  raise  it  to  its  due  position,  when  he 
would  so  work  at  it  that  they  should  see  a  different  figure 

"  These  "boys  seem  the  prototypes  of  Ueaidevio'' s  putti. 
'8  In  1434  be  made  a  design  for  a  window,  and  was  winner  in  a  competition 
with  Ghiberti. 

1®  The  statue  of  St.  Peter  is  in  situ.  The  figure  of  San  Marco  was  executed 
in  1411.  It  must  be  admitted  that  Donatello  was  often  very  unequal  in  his 
work,  and  this  inequality  is  noticeable  in  some  of  the  figures  of  Or  San  Michele 
and  the  Campanile.  The  construction  of  Or  San  Michele  was  completed  at 
the  cost  of  the  Commune  of  Florence.  The  ward  of  the  church  was  given 
to  the  Guild  of  Silk.  Each  guild  undertook  to  erect  a  statue  of  its  patron 
saint  in  one  of  the  niches  of  the  walls. 

*°  Not  the  Joiners,  Legnaiuoli^  but  the  Linen-drapers,  Linaiuoli. 


DONATO 


313 


from  that  they  then  beheld.  Having  placed  the  statue  ac- 
cordingly, he  shut  it  up  for  a  fortnight,  and  then,  without 
having  touched  it,  uncovered  his  work  to  the  admiration  of 
all. 

For  the  Guild  of  Armourers,  Donatello  executed  a  most 
animated  figure  of  St.  George,  in  his  armour.  The  bright- 
ness of  youthful  beauty,  generosity,  and  bravery  shine  forth 
in  his  face  ;  his  attitude  gives  evidence  of  a  proud  and  terri- 
ble impetuosity ;  the  character  of  the  saint  is  indeed  ex- 
pressed most  wonderfully,  and  life  seems  to  move  within  that 
stone.  It  is  certain  that  in  no  modern  figure  has  there  yet 
been  seen  so  much  animation,  nor  so  life-like  a  spirit  in  mar- 
ble, as  nature  and  art  have  combined  to  produce  by  the  hand 
of  Donate  in  this  statue. On  the  pedestal  which  supports 
the  tabernacle  enclosing  the  figure,  the  story  of  St.  George 
killing  the  dragon  is  executed  in  basso-rilievo,  and  also  in 
marble  :  in  this  work  there  is  a  horse,  which  has  been  highly 
celebrated  and  much  admired  :  in  the  pediment  is  a  half- 
length  figure  of  God  the  Father,  also  in  basso-rilievo.  This 
master  likewise  executed  the  tabernacle  for  the  Mercatan- 
zia,  which  is  opposite  to  the  church  of  that  oratory  :  it  is  in 
marble,  of  the  antique  order  called  Corinthian,  and  differs 
entirely  from  the  Gothic  manner.    This  tabernacle  was 

This  famous  St.  George,  executed  in  1416,  has  been  removed,  for  greater 
safety,  to  the  upper  hall  of  the  Bargello,  where  a  niche  identical  with  the  orig- 
inal one  of  Or  San  Miciiele  has  been  prepared  to  receive  it.  A  bronze  cast  of  the 
statue  will  be  placed  in  the  said  original  niche  under  which  still  remained  (in 
1801)  the  baf<-relief  of  St.  George  and  the  Dragon.  Besides  the  St.  George 
the  great  hall  contains  (in  addition  to  several  originals)  a  collection  of  casts 
from  all  the  principal  works  of  Donatello,  the  whole  forming  one  of  the  most 
important  special  collections  of  castings  ever  made.  The  story  that  Michel- 
angelo, looking  at  Donatello's  St.  George,  said  to  it,  "  Canimiiia  !  "  (March  !), 
is  bettered  in  a  delightful  popular  legend  which  defies  the  fact  that  Donatello 
died  ten  years  before  Michelangelo  was  born.  As  the  people  have  it,  Michel- 
angelo said  one  day  to  Donate,  "Thy  statue  of  San  Giorgio  has  but  one 
fault."  Donato  went  sadly  from  him,  and  thinking  always  of  his  fellow's 
criticism  pined  away  with  grief.  As  he  lay  upon  his  death-bed  he  sent  for 
Michelangelo  and  said  :  "  Tell  me,  before  I  die,  what  that  one  fault  is  which 
thou  imputest  with  such  certainty  to  my  statue?"  "It  is  that  it  does  not 
walk,"  replied  Michelangelo. 


314 


DONATO 


intended  for  the  reception  of  two  statues,  but  these  Donate 
would  not  complete,  because  he  could  not  come  to  an  agree- 
ment with  the  syndics  in  respect  to  the  price.  They 
were  consequently  executed  in  bronze,  after  his  death,  by 
Andrea  del  Verrochio,  as  will  be  related  hereafter.  In  that 
facade  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  which  faces  the  Campanile, 
Donate  executed  four  figures,  each  five  braccia  high,^^  two  of 
which  are  portraits  from  the  life,  one  of  Francesco  Soderini 
when  a  youth,  the  other  of  Giovanni  di  Barduccio  Cheri- 
chini,  now  called  the  Zuccone.  The  latter  is  considered  the 
most  extraordinary  and  most  beautiful  work  ever  produced 
by  Donatello,  who,  when  he  intended  to  affirm  a  thing  in  a 
manner  that  should  preclude  all  doubt,  would  say,  By  the 
faith  that  I  place  in  my  Zuccone.''  And  while  he  was 
working  on  this  statue  he  would  frequently  exclaim,  while 
looking  at  it,  Speak  then  !  why  wilt  thou  not  speak  ?  " 
Over  the  door  of  the  Campanile,  on  the  side  facing  the  Can- 
s'The  figures  are  three  and  one-half  instead  of  five  braccia  high.  The 
three  statues  nearest  the  fagade  of  the  church  are  by  Donatello,  namely,  the 
St.  John,  the  King  David,  called  lo  Zuccone  (the  pumpkin),  and  a  third  statue 
having  the  words  "King  Solomon"  inscribed  upon  its  base  and  the  words 
"Jeremiah  the  Prophet  "  carved  upon  the  roll  held  in  its  hand.  These  three 
are  all  signed  by  Donatello.  M.  Marcel  Reyraond  says  that  the  bases  marked 
with  the  names  of  David  and  Solomon  are  the  unremoved  bases  of  earlier 
statues  which  stood  there  before  Donatello's  works  took  their  place.  The 
fourth  is  signed  Joannes  Rossus  Prophetam  sculpsit  Abdiam.  Baldinucci  had 
already  quoted  documents  to  prove  this  latter  attribution,  and  the  scaffolding 
erected  for  repairs  in  1831  afforded  an  opportunity  for  reading  the  signatures. 
See  Milanosi,  Vol.  II.,  p.  404.  Giovanni  di  Bartolo,  called  II  Rosso,  worked 
with  Donatello  in  1419-22  on  a  statue  of  Abraham,  and  also  on  one  of  a 
prophet.  It  is  in  these  statues  of  the  Campanile,  especially  of  the  David  (lo 
Zuccone')  and  the  Jeremiah  that  Donatello  first  shows  his  intense  originality 
and  vitality.  It  is  realism  d  Vout7'ance^  feverishly  animated,  characterized 
and  individualized  in  every  inch  of  the  marble's  surface.  Unattractive,  al- 
most repellent  at  first,  the  ugly,  deeply  seamed  features,  coarse  and  heavy, 
are  yet  full  of  subtlety,  absolutely  and  intensely  alive.  These  are  not  Do- 
natello's best-known  works,  certainly  they  are  far  from  being  his  most  attrac- 
tive ones,  but  they  are  in  a  way  his  most  remarkable.  Here  is  an  art  so 
exuberantly  vital  that  a  whole  generation  of  sculptors  found  strength  in 
Donatello's  strength,  and  though  in  their  own  work  they  softened  his  rug- 
gedness,  yet  they  learned  from  this  master  to  reverence  even  the  asperities  of 
nature. 


DONATO 


315 


onlcate  is  the  figure  of  Abraham  about  to  sacrifice  Isaac,  by 
this  master,  with  another  prophet.  These  figures  were 
formerly  placed  between  two  other  statues. 

For  the  Signoria  of  Florence,  Donatello  cast,  in  bronze,  a 
statue  of  Judith  cutting  off  the  head  of  Holofernes.  This 
was  placed  on  the  piazza,  in  an  arch  of  their  loggia.  It  is  a 
work  of  great  excellence,  and  proves  the  mastery  of  the 
author  over  his  art.^^  There  is  much  grandeur  and  sim- 
plicity in  the  aspect  and  vestments  of  Judith ;  her  greatness 
of  mind,  and  the  power  she  derives  from  the  aid  of  God,  are 
made  clearly  manifest,  while  the  effects  of  wine  and  sleep 
are  equally  visible  in  the  countenance  of  Holofernes,  as  is 
the  result  of  death  in  his  limbs,  which  have  lost  all  power, 
and  hang  down  cold  and  flaccid.  This  work  was  so  care- 
fully executed  by  Donato,  that  the  casting  turned  out  most 
successfully,  and  was  delicately  beautiful  :  he  then  finished 
it  so  diligently,  that  it  is  indeed  most  wonderful  to  behold. 
The  basement,  also,  which  is  a  balustrade,  in  granite,  of 
simple  arrangement,  is  very  graceful  in  its  effect,  and  the 
appearance  is  extremely  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Donatello 
himself  was  so  well  satisfied  with  the  whole  of  this  work, 
that  he  determined  to  place  his  name  on  it  (which  he  had 
not  done  on  the  others),  as  is  seen  in  the  words  Donatelli 
Opus.  In  the  court  of  the  before-mentioned  Palazzo  della 
Signoria  is  a  David,  in  bronze,  by  this  master,  naked,  and 
of  the  size  of  life.*'^  He  has  cut  off  the  head  of  Goliah,  and 
raising  his  foot,  he  places  it  on  the  head  ;  in  his  right  hand 
is  the  sword.  The  animation,  truth  to  nature,  and  softness 
manifest  in  this  figure,  make  it  almost  impossible  to  artists 

23  M.  MUntz  considers  the  Judith  to  be  one  of  his  latest  works.  It  is  now  in 
the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi.  Cicognara  thinks  that  the  restriction  of  attitude  in  the 
Judith,  the  slight  sally  which  he  has  given  to  arms,  knees,  etc.,  is  a  proof 
of  foresight,  and  intended  to  preserve  the  statue  from  accidental  injury  or 
blows.  The  attitude  certainly  is  restricted  even  to  stiffness,  and  the  whole 
group  is  one  of  the  least  satisfactory  of  Donatello's  productions. 

2»  "The  earliest  attempt  of  the  Renaissance  to  restore  the  study  of  the  nude 
to  honour." — Miintz.  The  critic  refers  to  the  earliest  attempt  in  the  round 
statue,  not  in  the  relief.  The  date  is  probably  a  little  earlier  than  1433.  This 
statue  is  now  in  the  Bargello. 


316 


DONATO 


to  believe  that  it  has  not  been  moulded  on  the  living  form. 
This  statue  formerly  stood  in  the  court  of  the  Medici  Pal- 
ace, but,  on  the  exile  of  Oosimo  it  was  transported  to  the 
position  above  named  (the  Signoria).  In  our  day,  the 
Duke  Cosimo  having  made  a  fountain  on  the  spot  which 
this  figure  occupied,  has  caused  it  to  be  removed  to  another 
court  (the  place,  that  is,  where  the  lions  formerly  stood), 
where  it  makes  a  very  fine  ornament  to  that  facade  of  the 
palace.  There  is  another  beautiful  David,  in  marble,  also 
by  Donatello,  to  the  left  of  the  hall  where  the  clock  of 
Lorenzo  della  Volpaia  is  placed :  the  head  of  the  dead 
Goliah  lies  beneath  his  feet,  and  he  holds  the  sling  where- 
with he  has  slain  the  Philistine,  in  his  hand.^^  In  the  first 
court  of  the  Palazzo  de'  Medici  ^  are  eight  medallions  of 
marble,  whereon  are  copies  from  antique  cameos,  and  casts 
from  the  reverses  of  medals,  by  Donatello,  with  some,  also, 
of  his  own  invention,  which  are  very  beautiful.  They  are 
fixed  in  the  frieze,  between  the  windows  and  the  architrave, 
above  the  arch  of  the  loggia.  There  is  here,  moreover,  the 
antique  white  marble  figure  of  Marsyas,^  restored  by  Dona- 
tello, and  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  garden,  as  also  a 
large  number  of  antique  heads,  restored  and  enriched  by  this 
master,  with  an  ornament  composed  of  wings  and  diamonds 
(the  emblem  of  Cosimo),  extremely  well  executed  in  stucco. 
A  very  fine  granite  vase,  whence  issued  a  jet  of  water, 
with  one  of  a  similar  kind  in  the  garden  of  the  Pazzi,^  in 
Florence,  and  which  also  has  a  jet  of  water,  are  among  the 
works  of  Donatello.    In  the  same  palace  of  the  Medici  are 

25  In  the  Bargello,  ordered  in  1407.  It  remained  in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio  from 
1461  to  1781. 

28  The  Medici  Palace  is  now  the  Palazzo  Riccardi.  The  subjects  of  these 
medallions  are:  Diomed  with  the  Palladium,  Hercules  Conquered  by  Love, 
Hercules  in  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides,  an  Oracle,  a  Triumph  of  Love, 
Ariadne  at  Naxos,  a  Centaur,  and  a  Kneeling  Slave  before  his  Master, 

2'  There  is  a  Marsyas  in  the  Bargello,  a  mediocre  work,  and  it  is  exceed- 
ingly doubtful  whether  it  be  the  one  restored  by  Donatello. 

'8  There  is  a  marble  (not  granite)  vase  now  at  the  villa  of  Castello,  which 
may  be  the  one  referred  to. 
Now  in  the  Bargello. 


DONATO 


317 


likewise  figures  of  the  Madonna  in  basso-rilievo,  of  marble 
and  bronze,  with  other  most  beautiful  works  in  marble, 
executed  by  Donatello,  in  low  relief,  of  extraordinary  merit. 
Such  was  indeed  the  estimation  in  which  the  talents  of 
Donatello  were  held  by  Cosimo,  that  he  kept  him  continu- 
ally at  work ;  and  so  great  was  the  affection  which  Dona- 
tello, on  his  part,  bore  to  Cosimo,  that,  at  the  slightest 
intimation,  he  comprehended  all  that  was  desired,  and 
obediently  fulfilled  every  wish.  It  is  said  that  a  Genoese 
merchant  had  caused  Donato  to  make  a  bronze  bust,  of  the 
size  of  life  :  it  was  a  very  beautiful  work  ;  and  having  to  be 
carried  to  a  great  distance,  was  executed  in  a  light  and  deli- 
cate manner.  This  commission  had  been  procured  for 
Donatello  by  the  intervention  of  Cosimo ;  but  when  the 
bust  was  finished,  and  the  merchant  came  to  pay  for  it,  the 
master  appeared  to  him  to  demand  too  much  for  his  work  : 
thereupon  the  merchant  was  referred  to  Cosimo,  who,  hav- 
ing caused  the  bust  to  be  taken  to  the  upper  court  of  the 
palace,  had  it  placed  between  the  battlements  which  over- 
look the  road,  to  the  end  that  it  might  be  seen  the  better. 
When  Cosimo  therefore  sought  to  arrange  the  difference,  he 
found  the  offer  of  the  merchant  to  be  very  far  from  the 
demand  of  Donatello  ;  and,  turning  towards  him,  observed 
that  he  offered  too  little  :  but  the  merchant,  thinking  it  too 
much,  replied  that  Donato  could  have  made  it  in  a  month, 
or  something  better,  and  would  thus  be  gaining  more  than 
half  a  florin  per  day.  Donato  then  turned  about  in  great 
anger,  this  remark  having  offended  him  highly ;  and,  tell- 
ing the  merchant  that  he  had  found  means  in  the  hundredth 
part  of  an  hour  to  spoil  the  whole  labour  and  cares  of  a 
year,  he  gave  a  blow  to  the  bust,  which  fell  to  the  street 
below,  and  was  dashed  in  pieces,  at  the  same  time  observ- 
ing to  the  merchant  that  it  was  easy  to  see  he  was  better 
versed  in  bargaining  for  horse-beans  than  in  purchasing 
statues.  Regretting  what  had  happened,  the  merchant 
would  then  have  paid  him  double  the  sum  demanded,  on 
condition  of  his  reconstructing  the  bust ;  but  this  Donato 


318 


DONATO 


could  not  be  persuaded  to  do,  by  all  his  promises ;  nor 
would  he  consent  even  at  the  request  of  Cosimo.  In  the 
houses  of  the  Martelli  are  several  statues,  in  marble  and 
bronze,  by  this  master ;  among  others,  a  David  three  brac- 
cia  high,  with  many  other  works  executed  by  him,  and 
freely  presented  to  that  family,  in  proof  of  the  love  and 
devotion  which  he  bore  them.^  Among  these  works  is 
more  particularly  to  be  specified  a  San  Giovanni,  of  mar- 
ble, in  full  relief,  and  three  braccia  high  ;  a  most  rare  thing  ; 
now  possessed  by  the  heirs  of  Kuberto  Martelli,  and  respect- 
ing which  a  Fideicominisso  was  executed,  to  the  effect  that 
it  should  neither  be  pledged,  sold,  nor  given  away,  under 
heavy  penalties,  in  testimony  of  the  affection  borne  by  the 
Martelli  family  to  Donato,  and  of  his  gratitude  to  them  for 
the  opportunity  which  their  protection  had  afforded  him  for 
the  acquirement  of  his  art. 

Donato  also  constructed  a  sepulchral  monument  for  an 
archbishop,  which  was  sent  to  Naples,  and  is  erected  in 
Sant^  Angelo  di  Seggio  di  Nido.^^  In  this  work  are  three  fig- 
ures in  full  relief,  which  support  the  sarcophagus  on  their 
heads,  and  on  the  tomb  itself  is  a  story,  in  basso-rilievo, 
which  merits  the  highest  praise.  In  the  place  of  the  Count 
of  Matalone,  in  the  same  city,  is  the  head  of  a  horse,  from 

'0  Now  in  the  Palazzo  Martelli,  Via  della  Forca ;  the  David  is  unfinished. 
The  Saint  John  is  also  still  in  the  palace.  A  number  of  charming  portrait 
busts  of  children  have  been  attributed  to  Donatello,  and  Baron  Liphart  sug- 
gested to  M.  Miintz  that  many  of  these  might  be  portraits  of  different  mem- 
bers of  the  Martelli  family.  In  view  of  a  resemblance  between  some  of  the 
busts  and  of  Donateljo's  close  friendship  with  the  family,  the  hypothesis  is  a 
reasonable  one. 

3'  Executed  in  1427.  The  archbishop  referred  to  was  Cardinal  Rinaldo 
Brancacci.  Michelozzo  collaborated  with  Donatello.  For  description  of  this 
tomb  see  Perkins's  Historical  Hand-book  of  Italian  Sculpture. 

32  There  is  a  superb  head  now  in  the  Museum  of  Naples.  It  is  perhaps  the 
head  of  an  antique  bronze  horse  which  once  stood  before  the  cathedral ;  the 
body  of  the  horse  was  melted  down  to  make  a  big  bell.  See  Milanesi,  note 
3,  p.  409,  vol.  II.  See  addendum  to  the  same  note  :  "  We  have  in  the  car- 
teggio  private  of  the  Medici,  file  27,  letter  395,  a  letter  from  Count  Carlo 
Maddaloni,  written  from  Naples,  June  12,  1471.  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  thank- 
ing him  for  the  present  of  a  horse's  head  in  bronze  which  he  has  placed  in  his 


DONATO 


319 


the  hands  of  Donato,  which  is  so  beautiful  that  many  believe 
it  to  be  antique.  In  the  Castello  di  Prato  ^  he  constructed 
the  marble  pulpit,  from  which  the  girdle  (of  the  Virgin)  is 
shown.  In  one  compartment  of  this  pulpit  is  a  dance  of 
children,  so  admirably  and  beautifully  executed,  that  the 
master  may  be  truly  said  to  have  exhibited  the  perfection 
of  his  art  no  less  in  this  work  than  in  others.  Donatello 
likewise  cast  two  capitals,  in  bronze,  as  supports  for  the 
above-described  work,  one  of  which  is  still  there,  but  the 
other  was  carried  away  by  the  Spaniards,  when  they  gave 
that  region  over  to  pillage.^ 

Now  it  chanced  that  at  this  time  the  Signoria  of  Venice, 
having  heard  of  his  fame,  sent  for  Donate,  to  the  end  that 
he  might  erect  the  monument  of  Gattamelata  ^  in  the  city 
of  Padua,  whither  he  repaired  very  willingly,  and  where  he 
erected  the  bronze  horse,  still  on  the  Piazza  di  Sant'  Anto- 
nio, in  which  the  chafing  and  neighing  of  the  horse  are 
made  clearly  obvious,  while  the  pride  and  spirit  of  the  rider 
are  also  expressed  with  infinite  force  and  truth  by  the  art 
of  the  master.  Notwithstanding  the  great  size  of  this  cast- 
ing, Donatello  preserved  an  admirable  justice  in  all  the  pro- 
portions ;  and  the  excellence  of  the  work  is  such  that  it 
may  be  compared  with  those  of  any  ancient  master  for  de- 

house  where  it  can  be  seen  from  all  sides."  The  balance  of  evidence  seems  to 
be  that  this  latter  is  really  the  head  by  Donatello  referred  to  in  Vasari's  lite. 

3^  Now  city  of  Prato.    The  work  was  executed  about  14:^4. 

3>  It  is  probable  that  this  second  capital  was  never  made.  See  Cesare  Guasti, 
n  Pergamo  di  Donate.llo,  etc.  Michelozzo  contributed  the  architectural  part 
of  the  pulpit,  and  the  whole  forms  one  of  tlie  most  deliglitful  decorative  en- 
sembles of  the  Renaissance.  Michelozzo,  in  the  contract,  is  not  mentioned  by 
name,  but  as  Donatello's  "companion  in  art  work." 

36  This  colossal  statue  of  the  condottiere  Erasmo  da  Nami,  general  of  the 
Venetians,  was  erected  1444-53  at  the  expense  not  of  the  Signoria,  but  of  his 
son,  Gio.  Antonio,  and  among  the  equestrian  statues  of  the  Renaissance  is 
only  rivalled  by  that  of  Colleoni,  at  Venice.  A  cast  from  it  is  in  the  Bargello 
of  Florence,  and  the  statue  may  be  more  easily  seen  there  than  upon  its  high 
pedestal  against  the  brilliant  sky  of  Padua,  since  the  white  plaster  in  the 
lofty  vaulted  room  affords  a  better  opportunity  for  studying  the  detail  and 
modelling  than  does  the  dark  bronze  of  the  original,  placed  at  bo  great  a  dis- 
tance from  the  eye. 


320 


DONATO 


sign^  animation,  art,  harmony,  and  care  in  execution  ;  inso- 
much that  it  not  only  astonished  all  who  then  beheld  it,  but 
continues  to  amaze  those  who  examine  it  in  the  present  day. 
The  Paduans,  moved  by  the  merit  of  this  work,  did  their 
utmost  to  obtain  the  artist  for  their  fellow-citizen,  and 
sought,  by  all  sorts  of  caresses  to  prevail  on  him  to  stay  with 
them.  In  the  hope  of  retaining  him,  they  gave  him  the  com- 
mission to  execute  stories  from  the  life  of  Sant'  Antonio 
of  Padua  on  the  predella  of  the  high  altar,^^  in  the  church 

3«  One  of  the  most  interesting  reconstructions  ever  made  will  be  that  (Au- 
gust, 1895)  of  the  high  altar  of  Sant'  Antonio  of  Padua.  In  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  Massari  deW  Area  of  that  city  ordered  twenty-nine 
works  in  bronze,  besides  others  in  stone,  of  Donatello,  "assuredly,"  says  M. 
MUntz,  "  the  most  considerable  sculptural  e/iscm&Ztf  which  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury produced."  Sig.  Camillo  Boito,  La  Ricomposizione  delV  AUai'e  di  Do- 
natello^ V  Arch.  Stor.  delV  Arte,  1895,  141-162,  shows  that  these  bronzes  or- 
dered of  and  executed  by  Donatello  (with  the  aid  of  his  assistants)  were  :  A. 
Seven  statues,  the  Madonna,  S.  Prosdocimo,  S.  Lodovico,  S.  Francesco,  S. 
Daniele,  S.  Antonio,  S.  Justina.  B.  The  Crucifix.  C.  Four  basso-rilievi ;  the 
miracles  (begun  in  1446)  of  the  Boy  with  the  severed  Foot,  of  the  Miser's 
Heart,  of  the  Infant  given  Speech  that  he  might  defend  his  Mother,  and  of 
the  Mule  which  knelt  before  the  Sacrament.  D.  An  Eeee  Hom,o  in  the  Cibo- 
rium.  E.  A  Pietd.  F.  Twelve  little  Angels  playing  on  musical  instruments 
(begun  in  1446).  G.  The  Symbols  of  the  Four  Evangelists  (1446).  Among 
these  the  Ecce  Homo,  although  made  for  the  altar,  is  believed  not  to  be  the 
work  of  Donatello,  and  the  Crucifix,  although  by  the  latter,  was  not  made  for 
the  high  altar.  To  these  is  to  be  added  the  large  relief  in  stone  of  the  En- 
tombment. July  24, 1576,  the  Presidenti  deW  Area  ordered  a  new  altar,  which 
was  an  elaborate  and  apparently  a  clumsy  affair.  The  bronzes  of  Donatello, 
taken  from  the  places  for  which  he  had  intended  them,  were  dispersed  and  set 
upon  or  in  various  portions  of  the  new  altar,  some  of  them  too  high,  some  too 
low,  others  in  the  dark,  while  several  were  placed  in  other  parts  of  the  church. 
A  reconstruction  is  now  being  made  of  the  altar,  and  the  various  bronzes,  etc., 
are  to  be  given  as  nearly  as  possible  the  places  which  Donatello  intended 
them  to  fill.  Sig.  Boito,  in  a  long  and  careful  study,  shows  by  citation  of 
documents,  by  comparison  of  the  horizon  line  in  various  reliefs,  by  observa- 
tion of  the  similarity  or  difference  in  the  framing  (borders)  to  the  various 
works,  and  by  pointing  out  certain  background  ornaments  of  the  Pietd,  the 
probable  original  placing  of  all  these  different  works  He  also  quotes  an  ex- 
perimental distribution,  made  June  13, 1448,  in  a  wooden  altar  "  that  foreign 
visitors  might  see  "  the  works  of  Donatello,  and  he  shows  how  the  sculptor 
probably  made  certain  changes  after  this  original  experiment.  The  altar  as 
it  is  to  be  reconstructed  will  present  three  horizontal  belts  of  sculpture  ;  on 
the  lowest  will  be  all  the  figures  of  medium  size  in  relief,  the  Pietd  (in  the 


DO NATO 


321 


of  the  Friars  Minors.  These  stories  are  in  basso-rilievo,  and 
are  executed  with  so  much  ability,  that  the  most  excellent 
masters  in  this  art  stand  amazed  and  confounded  before 
them,  when  they  consider  the  beautiful  and  varied  compo- 
sitions they  display,  with  the  vast  amount  of  extraordinary 
figures  they  contain,  and  the  careful  consideration  of  the 
perspective  manifest  in  all  their  parts.  The  Maries  weep- 
ing over  the  Dead  Christ,  on  the  front  of  the  altar,  are  like- 
wise an  extremely  fine  work  of  this  master.  In  the  palace 
of  one  of  the  Counts  Capodilista,  Donato  constructed  the 
skeleton  of  a  horse,  in  wood  ;  the  neck  is  wanting,  but  the 
remainder  may  still  be  seen.^  The  order  observed  in  the 
junction  of  the  different  parts  is  so  remarkable,  that  who- 
ever considers  the  manner  of  this  work  will  be  enabled  to 
judge  of  the  varied  resources  and  boldness  of  the  artist. 
For  a  convent  of  nuns,  in  Padua,  Donatello  executed  a  Sau 
Sabastiano,  in  wood,  in  compliance  with  the  entreaties  of  a 
chaplain,  their  friend,  who  was  a  Florentine,  and  one  of  his 

centre),  the  twelve  musical  angels,  the  Symbols  of  the  Evangelists,  and  the 
Entombment.  In  the  second  line  will  come  the  reliefs  with  very  small  figures, 
the  four  miracles,  and  the  Ciborium.  In  the  upper  row  will  be  placed  the 
nearly  life-size  figures  of  the  Madonna  and  saints.  Sig.  Boito  believes  that 
the  Crucifix  (begun  in  1444)  was  never  placed  upon  the  high  altar  of  Dona- 
tello, but  upon  another  and  older  altar,  which  continued  in  use  even  after  the 
newer  and  more  famous  altar  of  Donatello  was  erected.  For  diagrams,  repro- 
ductions, and  copious  explanations,  see  Sig.  Boito,  op.  cit.^  and  Sig.  A.  Gloria, 
Donatello  Fiorentino  e  le  sue  opere  mirabili  nel  tempio  di  SanV  Antonio  in 
Padova,  1895. 

3^  A  colossal  wooden  model  of  a  horse,  probably  made  for  the  statue  of  Gat- 
temelata,  is  in  the  Palazzo  della  Ragione  of  Padua.  In  a  festival  given  by  Count 
Capodilista,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  skins  were  stretched  upon  this  horse 
and  a  colossal  Jupiter  was  placed  upon  his  back.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  in  the  quattrocento  Donatello's  modelling  of  an  equestrian  statue  was 
not  only  an  achievement,  but  an  innovation.  From  end  to  end  of  the  penin- 
sula there  were  to  be  seen  only  the  Marcus  Aurelius  of  the  Roman  capitol, 
and  a  few  Gothic  or  semi-Gothic  equestrian  statues  (the  Scaligieri  of  Verona, 
Bemabo  Visconti  in  Milan,  Paolo  Savelli  in  Venice,  etc.).  Donatello  had 
before  him  a  double  problem  of  subject  and  of  material  execution,  for  the 
casting  was  to  be  on  a  scale  hitherto  unattempted  in  Renaissance  statues. 
The  horses  of  Saint  Mark  served  as  prototypes  for  this  wooden  model,  which 
in  some  respects  surpasses  the  completed  bronze  statue. 


822 


DONATO 


own  intimates.  This  chaplain  brought  Donato  a  figure  of 
the  saint,  old  and  very  ugly,  belonging  to  the  nuns,  beg- 
ging that  he  would  make  the  new  statue  like  that.  The 
master,  desiring  to  oblige  the  chaplain  and  the  nuns,  took 
pains  to  imitate  their  model  ;  but,  rude  and  ugly  as  the 
figure  he  had  to  copy  was,  Donato  could  not  do  otherwise 
than  manifest  the  excellence  of  his  art  in  his  accustomed 
manner.  At  the  same  time  he  executed  many  other  works, 
in  stucco  and  clay ;  and,  from  a  piece  of  old  marble  which 
the  nuns  above-mentioned  had  in  their  garden,  he  produced 
a  very  beautiful  figure  of  the  Virgin.^  A  vast  number  of 
works  by  this  master  exist  in  all  parts  of  that  city.  They 
caused  him  to  be  considered  a  wonder  among  the  Paduans, 
and  won  him  the  commendations  of  all  good  judges.  But 
this  determined  Donato  to  return  to  Florence ;  he  declared 
that  if  he  remained  any  longer  in  Padua,  he  should  forget 
all  that  he  had  acquired,  and  from  being  so  much  praised 
by  every  one ;  wherefore  he  affirmed  that  he  should  return 
gladly  to  his  native  city,  though  he  were  to  be  continually 
censured  there,  since  such  censure  would  give  him  motives 
for  study,  and  consequently  conduce  to  his  attainment  of 
greater  glory.  Having  therefore  departed  from  Padua,  he 
passed  through  Venice  on  his  return  to  Florence,  and,  as  a 
mark  of  his  consideration  for  the  Florentines  residing  there, 
he  left  them  the  gift  of  a  San  Giovanni  Batista,  for  their 
chapel  in  the  church  of  the  Friars  Minors,^  carved  by  him- 
self, in  wood,  with  infinite  study  and  care.  In  the  city  of 
Faenza,  also,  Donatello  executed  a  San  Giovanni  and  a  San 
Girolamo,  which  are  no  less  esteemed  than  are  the  other 
works  of  his  master. 

S8  Over  the  door  of  the  Cappella  delle  Reliquie  in  Saint  Anthony  was  until 
recently  a  Descent  from  the  Cross  by  Donatello.  All  of  the  master's  works  in 
the  church  are  to  be  rearranged.    See  note  36. 

39  Still  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Gloriosa  dei  Frari,  for  which  it  was  exe- 
cuted in  1451.    In  1450  he  undertook  a  statue  of  Borso  d'Este  in  Modena,  but, 
like  the  reliquary  commenced  in  Mantua  (1450-1451)  for  the  Gonzaga,  and  the 
works  for  the  Cathedral  of  Ferrara,  it  was  not  executed, 
Jn  1457  ;  both  are  in  the  museum  of  Faenza. 


DONATO 


323 


On  his  return  into  Tuscany,  Donatello  constructed  a  mar- 
ble tomb  in  the  chapter-house  of  Montepulciano,  adorned 
with  an  historical  representation  of  great  beauty. In  the 
sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo,  in  Florence,  he  executed  a  marble 
lavatory,''^  on  which  Andrea  del  Verrocchio  also  worked, 
with  many  busts  and  figures  in  the  palace  of  Lorenzo  della 
Stufa,  which  are  full  of  spirit  and  animation.  Then,  leav- 
ing Florence,  he  repaired  to  Rome,''^  where  he  laboured  to 
the  utmost  of  his  power  to  imitate  the  works  of  the  an- 
tiques ;  and,  while  studying  them,  he  produced,  at  the 
same  time,  a  tabernacle  of  the  Sacrament,  in  stone,  which 
is  now  in  San  Pietro.'^    When  returning  to  Florence,  and 

41  This  is  a  monument  to  Bartolommeo  Aragazzi  (died  1429),  secretary  to 
Pope  Martin  V.  As  Donatello  worked  frequently  with  Michelozzo  it  is  very 
possible  that  he  may  have  helped  to  execute  this  tomb,  but  the  commission  for 
it  was  given  solely  to  Michelozzo  in  1436,  and  Donatello  does  not  mention  this 
monument  in  his  report  to  the  income-tax  collector.  See  Milaneai,  II.,  413, 
note  5. 

42  The  more  important  lavatory  in  a  small  room  off  the  sacristy  has  been  at- 
tributed to  Benedetto  da  Maiano  and  also  to  Rossellino.  According  to  Herr 
von  Fabriczy  (Recherches  tiouvelles  sur  Donatello,  Gazette  des  Beaux  ArtSy 
1892),  Donatello  contracted  for  a  reliquary  (see  note  39)  to  be  executed  for 
the  Gonzaga  of  Mantua,  and  delivered  several  figures,  wliich  have  disappeared 
or  have  not  been  identified.    He  worked  also  in  Pisa  during  the  year  1426. 

43  There  is  obscurity  regarding  this  second  trip  to  Rome.  Sig.  D.  Gnoli 
(see  V Archivio  Storico  delV  Arte,  VoL  I.,  p.  24)  carries  back  his  arrival  to 
1432,  or  end  of  1431. 

*4  Sig.  D.  Gnoli  (see  V Opere  di  Donatello  in  Roma,  in  UArchivio  Storico 
deir  Arte,  Vol.  I.,  p.  24)  thinks  this  tabernacle  was  made  for  S.  M.  della  Feb- 
bre,  was  carried  later  into  San  Pietro,  and  later  still,  when  the  new  sacristy  was 
built,  was  placed  in  the  wall  of  the  Capella  de  Beneficiati  where  Schmarsow 
recognized  it.  No  great  influence  of  the  antique  is  shown  in  it,  and  it  may 
possibly  date  from  Donatello's  first  visit.  Herr  von  Tschudi  finds  in  it  great 
resemblance  to  Donatello's  Delivery  of  the  Keys,  in  the  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum. The  only  fully  authenticated  Donatellos  in  Rome  are  the  above  cibo- 
rium  and  the  tombal  slab  of  Archdeacon  Giovanni  Crivelli  (Church  of  the 
Ara  Coeli),  died  1433.  The  latter  has  been,  at  the  instance  of  Sig.  Gnoli,  raised 
from  the  pavement  and  set  upright.  It  is  marble,  not  bronze,  as  stated  by 
some  critics,  and  in  the  signature,  "  Opus  Donatelli  Fiorentini,''''  the  latter 
word  appears  for  the  first  time  upon  a  work  of  this  master.  Sig.  Gnoli  has 
discovered  in  the  Archivio  Lateranense  the  wooden  Saint  John  Baptist  made 
for  San  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  and  attributed  in  earlier  authors  to  Donatello.  It 
was  for  a  long  time  lost.  He  is  sure  it  is  not  by  Donatello,  but  is  a  much 
later  work.    See  reproduction  in  UArchivio  Storico  delV  Arte,  Vol.  I.,  p.  29. 


324 


DONATO 


passing  through  Siena,  Donatello  undertook  to  execute  a 
bronze  door  for  the  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni,  in  that 
city ;  and  having  made  the  model  in  wood,  he  had  nearly 
finished  the  wax  moulds,  and  successfully  made  the  various 
preparations  for  casting,  when  there  arrived  in  Siena  a 
Florentine  goldsmith,  Bernardetto  di  Mona  Papera,  an  in- 
timate friend  of  Donatello,  who,  returning  homeward  from 
Kome,  so  talked  and  contrived  that,  whether  for  his  own 
affairs,  or  for  some  other  cause,  he  succeeded  in  taking 
Donato  with  him  to  Florence.  The  work  thus  remained 
unfinished,  or  rather,  it  was  never  begun ;  and  there  is 
preserved  in  that  city,  by  the  hand  of  Donatello,  a  San  Gio- 
vanni Battista  only ;  this  is  in  bronze,  it  is  in  the  apart- 
ments belonging  to  the  superintendents  of  the  Duomo,  and 
wants  the  right  arm,  from  the  elbow  downwards.  Duomo 
himself  is  said  to  have  left  it  in  this  state,  because  he  had 
not  received  the  full  amount  of  the  payment  due  for  it.^ 

Having  thus  returned  to  Florence,  Donato  undertook  to 
decorate  the  sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo,  in  stucco,  for  Cosimo 
de^  Medici.  In  the  angles  of  the  ceiling  that  is  to  say,  he 
executed  four  medallions,  the  ornaments  of  which  were 
partly  painted  in  perspective,  partly  stories  from  the  Evan- 
gelists in  basso-rilievo.  In  the  same  place  Donato  made 
two  doors  of  bronze  ^  in  basso-rilievo  of  most  exquisite  work- 
manship :  on  these  doors  he  represented  the  apostles,  mar- 

45  Donatello  has  several  works  in  Siena,  namely,  a  bronze  relief  (1427)  in- 
crusted  upon  the  Baptistery  font,  the  subject  being  Herod  and  Salome  ;  the 
bronze  tombal  slab  of  Giovanni  Pecci,  Bishop  of  Grosseto,  set  in  the  pave- 
ment of  the  Duomo ;  two  little  figures  of  Hope  and  Faith,  upon  the  above- 
mentioned  font  of  the  Baptistery,  and  on  the  top  of  the  same  three  naked 
bronze  Angioletti,  which  are  among  the  finest  productions  of  the  Renaissance, 
and  greatly  surpass  the  famous  Angioletti  (in  relief)  of  Padua.  Another 
bronze  Ainorino  in  the  Bargello  was  probably  also  intended  for  the  font  of 
Siena.  The  Saint  John,  when  furnished  by  Donatello  to  the  Duomo,  really 
did  lack  an  arm,  which  has  since  been  supplied,  but  the  story  of  non-payment 
is  disproved  by  the  cathedral  books. 

These  doors  are  remarkable  and  representative  works  of  the  master,  but 
they  certainly  are  not  conceived  in  a  decorative  spirit,  and  are,  according  to 
M.  Miintz  {Donatello^  p.  57),  "a  capital  error"  in  their  lack  of  rhythm  and 
harmony. 


DO NATO 


325 


tyrs,  and  confessors,  and  above  these  figures  are  two  shallow 
niches,  in  one  of  which  are  San  Lorenzo  and  San  Stef  ano,  in 
the  other  San  Oosimo  and  San  Damiano.'''  In  the  transept 
of  the  church  a^^o,  Donatello  executed  four  figures  of  saints 
in  stucco,  each  five  braccia  high,  which  are  very  well  fin- 
ished.^ The  bronze  pulpits  were  likewise  constructed  un- 
der his  direction ;  and  the  passion  of  Christ  represented 
thereon,  is  a  work  in  which  drawing,  force,  and  invention, 
are  alike  remarkable,  with  a  rich  variety  in  the  figures  and 
building.  This  work  Donato  was  prevented  by  age  from 
completing  himself,  and  it  was  finished  by  his  disciple  Ber- 
toldo,  who  brought  it  to  the  utmost  perfection.''^  In  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore  are  two  colossal  figures  of  brick  and  stucco, 
by  Donatello,  they  stand  without  the  church,  and  serve  as 
ornaments  to  the  angles  of  the  chapels.^  Over  the  door  of 
Santa  Oroce  is  still  to  be  seen  a  statue  of  San  Lodovico, 
in  bronze,  five  braccia  high,  from  the  hand  of  Donatello, 
who  being  reproached  for  having  made  the  figure  stupid 
and  clumsy, — (it  is  perhaps  the  worst,  or  in  any  case  the 
least  meritorious  of  his  works) — replied,  that  he  had  done  so 
of  set  purpose,  since  the  saint  certainly  must  have  been  a 
stupid  fellow  to  leave  his  sovereignty  and  make  himself  a 
monk.  For  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  the  same  master  executed 
the  bust  of  his  wife  in  bronze,  and  this  is  still  preserved 
in  the  treasury  of  our  lord  the  Duke  Cosimo,  where  are 
many  other  works  in  bronze  and  marble  from  the  hand  of 
Donato  ;  among  others  a  Virgin  in  marble,  with  the  child 
in  her  arms,  in  very  low  relief,  than  which  it  is  not  possible 
to  see  anything  more  beautiful,  and  the  rather  as  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  historical  representations  in  miniature  by  Fra 

These  works  still  exist. 
48  These  figures  are  lost. 

4»  These  pulpits,  or  rather  isolated  ambones,  have  reliefs  representing  the 
Crucifixion,  the  Entombment,  the  Descent  into  Limbo,  the  Resurrection,  and 
the  Ascension.  Donatello  probably  only  made  the  sketches,  and  the  reliefs  are 
among  the  least  admirable  of  his  works. 
These  figures  are  lost. 

61  The  statue  is  in  the  interior^  over  the  door. 


326 


DONATO 


Bartolommeo,  which  are  admirable,  as  will  be  further 
shown  in  its  due  place.  Our  lord  the  duke  has  also  a  most 
beautiful,  or  rather  wonderful,  crucifix  in  bronze,  from  the 
hand  of  Donate,  in  his  study,  where  there  are  innumerable 
antiquities  of  rare  value,  with  very  fine  medals.  In  the 
before-mentioned  treasury  (guardaroba),  moreover,  there  is 
a  basso-rilievo  in  bronze,  representing  the  Crucifixion  of  our 
Lord,  which  contains  a  great  number  of  figures,  with  another 
crucifixion  also  in  bronze.  In  the  house  now  belonging  to 
the  heirs  of  Jacopo  Oapponi,  who  was  an  excellent  citi- 
zen and  true  gentleman,  is  a  figure  in  marble  of  the  Virgin, 
in  half  relief,  which  is  esteemed  to  be  a  most  extraordinary ' 
work.  Messer  Antonio  de'  Nobili  also,  who  was  adminis- 
trator of  his  excellency  the  duke,  had  a  work  in  marble  by 
the  hand  of  Donate  in  his  house,  and  in  this  is  a  half-length 
figure  of  Our  Lady,  which  is  so  beautiful,  that  Messer  An- 
tonio prized  it  as  much  as  all  his  wealth :  nor  is  it  less 
valued  by  Giulio  his  son,  a  young  man  of  singular  excel- 
lence and  judgment,  the  friend  of  artists  and  of  all  distin- 
guished men.^^  In  the  house  of  Giovan  Battista  d^Agnol 
Doni,  a  Florentine  gentleman,  there  is  moreover  a  Mercury 
in  metal  by  Donate, the  height  one  braccio  and  a  half  ;  it 
is  in  full  relief,  and  is  clothed  in  a  somewhat  fanciful  man- 
ner ;  the  execution  of  this  work  is  truly  beautiful,  and  it  is 
no  less  remarkable  than  the  other  rarities  which  adorn  his 
most  beautiful  house.  Bartolommeo  Gondi,  of  whom  we 
have  already  spoken  in  the  life  of  Giotto,  possesses  a  figure 

62  All  of  these  works  appear  to  be  lost,  or  have  not  been  identified,  saving 
only  the  bust  of  the  wife  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici.  Sig.  Umberto  Rossi,  II  museo 
nazionale  nel  Triennio,  1889-1891  (JO Arch.  Stor.  delV  Arte,  1893,  p.  15),  states 
his  conviction  that  the  well-known  bronze  in  the  Bargello  called  the  Annalena 
Visconti  and  attributed  to  II  Vecchietta,  is  really  a  portrait  of  Contessina 
de'  Bardi,  wife  of  Cosimo,  and  that  it  was  executed  by  Donatello  from  a  death- 
mask. 

S3  Now  in  the  Bargello.  There  has  been  much  dispute  as  to  whether  this 
bronze  Cupid  (Perseus  ?  Mercury  ?)  is  a  genuine  antique  or  a  modern  statue. 
M.  Muntz  unhesitatingly  attributes  it  to  the  last  period  of  Donatello's  life, 
when  "the  attempt  to  follow  the  antique  became  stronger  with  him  than 
the  realistic  instinct." 


DONATO 


327 


of  Our  Lady  in  mezzo-rilievo  by  the  hand  of  Donato,  which 
is  finished  with  so  much  love  and  diligence,  that  it  is  scarce- 
ly possible  to  imagine  anything  better  ;  nor  will  it  be  read- 
ily conceived  with  what  grace  and  lightness  the  master  has 
treated  the  ornaments  of  the  head,  or  the  elegance  which 
he  has  imparted  to  the  vestments  of  this  figure.  Messer 
Lelio  Torelli  also,  first  auditor  and  secretary  to  the  lord 
duke,  a  no  less  judicious  lover  of  all  the  sciences,  talents, 
and  honourable  vocations,  than  excellent  as  a  lawyer,  has  a 
marble  figure  of  the  Virgin  in  his  possession  which  is  like- 
wise by  Donatello.^  But  fully  to  narrate  the  life  and 
enumerate  the  works  executed  by  this  master,  would  neces- 
sitate a  longer  story  than  we  have  proposed  to  ourselves  in 
writing  the  lives  of  our  artists,  seeing  that  he  occupied  him- 
self with  so  many  things  ;  giving  his  attention  not  only  to 
works  of  importance,  of  which  we  have  spoken  sufficiently 
but  also  to  the  smallest  matters  connected  with  art.  He 
frequently  executed  the  arms  of  families,  for  example, 
placing  them  over  the  chimney-pieces,  or  on  the  fronts  of 
the  houses  of  the  citizens  ;  as  may  still  be  seen  in  the  house 
of  the  Sommai,  which  is  opposite  to  tliat  of  the  baker,  della 
Vacca,  where  there  is  a  most  beautiful  specimen  of  this 
kind  :    he  made  a  chest  or  sarcophagus  also,  for  the  family 

6*  Masselli  states  that  we  have  no  trace  of  either  of  these  works.  Among 
works  not  mentioned  by  Vasari  but  generally  accredited  to  Donatello  may  be 
mentioned  the  wonderful  so-called  Uzzano  bust  in  the  Bargello,  the  Delivery 
of  the  Keys  to  Peter,  a  relief  in  South  Kensington  Museum  ;  a  Dead  Christ 
upheld  by  Angels,  a  marble  relief  in  the  same  museum  ;  a  Feast  of  Herod,  mar- 
ble relief  in  Museum  of  Lille ;  a  bronze  relief,  St.  Sebastian,  in  the  collection 
of  M.  Edouard  Andre  ;  two  terra-cotta  sketches  for  a  Virgin  and  Child  in  re- 
lief, both  sketches  recently  acquired  from  Venice,  one  by  the  Berlin  Museum, 
one  by  the  Bargello  (see  Le  Oallerie  Ital  'umc^  1895)  ;  a  Flagellation,  bronze  re- 
lief in  the  Louvre;  an  Entombment,  Vienna  collections ;  reliefs  of  St.  John 
Baptist  in  the  Goupil  collection  at  the  Louvre,  Dreyfus  collection  and  Bargello 
of  Florence  ;  the  two  busts  of  children  in  the  Vanchettoni  church  of  Florence  ; 
the  famous  Laughing  Child  in  the  Miller  collection  of  Vienna ;  busts  of  the 
Christ  Child  in  the  collection  of  M.  Charles  Ephrussi  and  M.  E.  Andre,  of 
Paris  ;  two  Genii  (candelabrum  supporters)  in  the  collection  of  M.  E.  Piot,  of 
Paris.  The  Vanchettoni  and  Miller  busts  have  been  attributed  to  Desiderio. 
According  to  Milanesi  this  family  (da  Sommaja)  became  extinct  in  the 


328 


BONATO 


of  the  Martelli,  in  the  form  of  a  cradle  of  wicker-work  ; 
this  was  intended  for  a  tomb,  and  is  deposited  beneath  the 
church  of  San  Lorenzo,  no  tombs  of  any  kind  being  allowed 
to  appear  above,  or  in  the  church  itself — the  epitaph  of  that 
of  Cosimo  de^  Medici  is  alone  excepted,  and  the  entrance 
even  of  this  is  placed  below,  like  that  of  the  others.^  It  is 
said,  that  Simone,  the  brother  of  Donato,  having  prepared 
the  model  for  the  sepulchral  monument  of  Pope  Martin  V., 
sent  for  Donato,  to  the  end  that  he  might  see  it  before  it 
should  be  cast,  whereupon  that  master,  proceeding  to  Rome 
accordingly,  chanced  to  be  there  exactly  at  the  time  when 
the  Emperor  Sigismond  was  in  the  city  for  the  purpose  of 
receiving  the  crown  from  Pope  Eugenius  IV. ;  ^  wherefore 

last  century  ;  nothing  is  known  regarding  the  escutcheon  mentioned,  but 
other  escutcheons  existing  in  Florence  are  attributed  to  the  master. 

Cosimo's  "epitaph"  may  still  be  seen.  The  inventory  of  Donatello's 
property  in  Gaye's  Carteggio  shows  conclusively  that  Donatello  never  had  a 
brother  Simone.  C.  C.  Perkins  says  in  his  Historical  Handbook  of  Italian 
Sculpture  that  the  Simone  referred  to  was  either  Simone  di  Giovanni  Ghini, 
a  Florentine  goldsmith,  or  else  Simone  di  Nanni  Ferruci,  of  Fiesole.  Nanni  di 
Banco  was  not  a  pupil  of  Donatello,  as  affirmed  by  our  author,  and  although 
Vasari  in  another  place  makes  Nanni  a  butt  for  the  jokes  of  Donatello,  the 
former  was  no  amateur  and  no  bungler,  but  the  son  of  an  architect  and  capo- 
maestro  of  the  works,  and  himself  a  great  sculptor,  probably  the  most  famous 
of  those  who  immediately  preceded  Donatello — for  Nanni  was  somewhat  the 
senior  of  Donatello.  He  executed  the  beautiful  mandorla  of  S.  M.  del  Fiore. 
"  In  1433. 

6**  The  relief  of  the  Delivery  of  the  Keys,  in  the  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum, probably  dates  from  this  pontificate.  The  Berlin  Museum  has  a  bronze 
statuette  of  S.  John,  the  marble  relief  called  the  Pazzi  Madonna,  and  a  bronze 
bust  of  Lodovico  Gonzaga  III.  (circa  1450).  The  Pazzi  Madonna,  the  Dreyfus 
Putto^  the  South  Kensington  Pietd^  the  bust  of  S.  John  given  by  M.  Goupil 
to  the  Louvre,  are  not  mentioned  by  Milanesi  in  his  catalogue  (1886)  of  Dona- 
tello's works,  but  they  are  all  accredited  by  most  critics  to  that  master.  One 
may  especially  note  the  courageous  and  undoubtedly  justified  refusal  of  Mr. 
Claude  Phillips  (see  Marmi  ebronzi  del  Rinascimento  Italiano  in  VArchivio 
Storico  delV  Arte^  Vol.  I.)  to  credit  the  Santa  Cecilia  of  Lord  Wemyss's  collec- 
tion to  Donatello  in  spite  of  its  long  and  general  attribution  to  him  by  Perkins 
and  other  authors.  Mr.  Phillips  says  it  is  too  facile  in  its  elegance,  too  super- 
ficial, and  too  empty.  The  Madonna  of  Solarolo  di  Romagna,  ascribed  by 
Sig.  F.  Argnani  of  Faenza  to  Donatello,  is  said  by  Herr  von  Fabriczy  (see 
V  Archivio  Storico  delV  Arte,  I.,  323)  to  be  by  either  A.  Rossellino  or  one  of  his 
pupils.  The  large  Crucifixion,  with  traces  of  gold  upon  it,  now  in  the  Bargello, 


DO NATO 


329 


he  found  himself  compelled  to  give  his  attention  to  the 
sumptuous  preparations  made  for  that  festival,  which  he 
did  in  company  with  his  brother  Simone,  acquiring  there- 
from much  renown  and  very  great  honour. 

In  the  guardaroba  of  the  Signer  Guidobaldo,  duke  of 
Urbino,  is  a  most  beautiful  head  of  marble,  from  the  hand 
of  Donatello,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  work  was  presented 
to  the  ancestors  of  the  signor  Duke,  by  the  magnificent 
Giuliano  de'  Medici,  during  the  time  of  his  stay  at  the  court 
of  Urbino,  where  were  assembled  a  large  number  of  dis- 
tinguished men.  In  effect.  Donate  was  a  master  of  such 
merit,  and  so  admirable  in  all  he  did,  that  we  may  safely 
declare  him  to  have  been  the  first,  who,  by  his  knowledge, 
judgment,  and  practice,  rendered  the  art  of  sculpture  and 
of  good  design  illustrious  among  the  people  of  modern 
times.  And  he  is  all  the  more  worthy  of  commendation, 
because  in  his  day  the  antiquities  now  brought  to  light — the 
columns,  triumphal  arches,  and  vases — had  not  been  dis- 
covered, and  excavated  from  the  earth.  Donate  was,  more- 
over, the  principal  cause  of  the  determination  taken  by 
Cosimo  de'  Medici  to  bring  the  antiquities  now  in  the  Palazzo 
Medici  to  Florence  :  and  all  of  wliicli  he  restored  with  his 
own  hand.  He  was  most  liberal,  friendly,  and  courteous 
to  all,  being  ever  more  careful  for  his  friends  than  for  him- 
self ;  he  attached  little  value  to  his  gains,  but  kept  what 
money  he  had  in  a  basket,  suspended  by  a  cord  to  the  roof, 
and  from  this  all  his  assistants,  as  well  as  his  friends  took 
what  they  needed,  without  being  expected  to  say  anything 
to  him.  He  passed  his  old  age  cheerfully,  and  when  he  be- 
came too  decrepit  to  work  longer,  he  was  taken  care  of  by 
Cosimo,  and  others  of  his  friends.  It  is  said,  that  when 
Cosimo  found  himself  at  the  point  of  death,  he  left  Donate 
in  charge  to  Piero  his  son,  who  being  a  most  careful  execu- 
tor of  his  father's  will,  bestowed  on  him  a  farm  in  Cafag- 

is  attributed  to  Donate  by  Sig.  Rossi  {Arch.  Stor.  delV  Arte.,  VI.,  10).  Vasari 
does  not  mention  Donatello's  Marzocco,  or  Florentine  lion,  which  long  stood 
on  the  RiugJiiera  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  and  is  now  in  the  Bargello, 


330 


DONATO 


giuolo,  the  income  from  which  was  of  such  amount,  that 
Donato  might  have  lived  on  it  most  commodiously.  He 
made  great  rejoicings  over  this  gift  accordingly,  consider- 
ing himself  to  be  more  than  secured  from  the  fear  of  dying 
of  hunger  by  such  a  provision ;  but  he  had  not  held  the 
property  a  year,  when  he  returned  to  Piero,  restoring  the 
farm  to  him  by  the  proper  legal  forms,  declaring  that  he 
would  not  have  his  quiet  destroyed,  by  thinking  of  house- 
hold cares,  and  listening  to  the  troubles  and  outcries  of  the 
farmers,  who  came  pestering  him  every  third  day,  now  be- 
cause the  wind  had  unroofed  the  dove-cote,  then  because 
his  cattle  had  been  seized  for  taxes,  and  anon  because  of  the 
storms  which  had  cut  up  his  vines  and  fruit-trees  :  with  all 
which  he  was  so  completely  worn  out  and  wearied,  that  he 
would  rather  perish  with  hunger,  than  be  tormented  by  so 
many  cares.  Piero  laughed  at  the  simplicity  of  Donato, 
and  to  liberate  him  from  this  grievance,  he  resumed  posses- 
sion of  the  farm,  (for  this  Donato  absolutely  would  have 
done),  but  assigned  him  an  income  of  equal  or  larger  value, 
secured  on  the  bank,  and  to  be  paid  in  cash ;  of  this  he 
received  the  due  proportion  every  week,  while  he  lived,  an 
arrangement  which  rejoiced  him  greatly. Thus,  as  the 
friend  and  servant  of  the  house  of  Medici,  Donato  lived  in 
cheerfulness  and  free  from  cares  all  the  rest  of  his  days  : 
when  he  had  attained  his  eighty-third  year,  he  became  para- 
lytic, and  could  no  longer  labour  in  any  manner,  whereupon 
he  took  to  his  bed,  where  he  lay  constantly,  in  a  poor  little 
house  which  he  had  in  the  Via  del  Cocomero,  close  to  the 
nuns  of  San  Nicolo,  and  here,  becoming  worse  from  day  to 

69  Vespasiano  da  Bisticci,  in  his  life  of  Cosimo  the  Elder,  has  the  follow- 
ing passage  among  others  relating  to  Donatello:  "As  Donatello  did  not  go 
dressed  in  the  manner  that  Cosimo  would  have  liked,  the  latter  caused  a 
mantle  and  cap  to  be  made  for  him,  with  a  cape  beneath  the  mantle ;  and 
thus  providing  him  with  a  new  suit,  he  sent  it  to  the  master  one  morning 
that  there  was  a  festival,  to  the  end  that  he  might  wear  it  on  that  occasion. 
Donato  wore  it  once  or  twice,  but  after  that  he  sent  it  to  Cosimo  again,  be- 
cause, as  he  said,  it  appeared  to  him  to  be  too  dainty." — Vita  di  Cosimo^  in 
the  Spicilegium  Romanum^  edited  by  Cardinal  Mai,  L,  p.  341. 


DONATO 


331 


day,  and  declining  by  degrees,  he  died  on  the  13th  of  De- 
cember, 1466.^  He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  San 
Lorenzo,  near  the  tomb  of  Cosimo,  as  he  had  himself  com- 
manded, to  the  end  that  his  body  might  be  near  him  when 
dead,  as  his  spirit  had  been  ever  near  him  when  in  life. 

The  death  of  Donato  was  much  regretted  by  his  fellow- 
citizens,  by  the  artists,  and  by  all  who  had  known  him  in 
his  life,  and  to  the  end  that  they  might  do  him  more  rever- 
ence after  death,  than  he  had  received  while  alive,  they  per- 
formed his  obsequies  most  honourably  in  the  above-named 
church,  and  he  was  accompanied  to  his  grave  by  all  the 
painters,  architects,  sculptors,  goldsmiths,  and  in  fine,  by 
nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  city.  Nor  was  it  until  a 
long  time  after  that  they  ceased  to  compose  verses  to  his 
honour  in  different  languages,  and  of  various  kinds  ;  of 
these  it  must  suffice  for  us  to  give  the  few  that  may  be  read 
below. 

But  before  I  come  to  the  epitaphs,  I  think  it  would  not 
be  amiss  to  relate  one  more  anecdote  of  Donatello,  which  is 
as  follows  :  When  he  had  already  become  sick,  and  a  short 
time  only  before  he  died,  there  went  to  see  him  certain  per- 
sons of  his  kinsfolk,  and  after  they  had  saluted  him,  as  is 
customary,  and  condoled  with  him  on  his  illness,  they  told 
him  that  it  was  his  duty  to  leave  a  farm  which  he  had  in 
the  territories  of  Prato  to  them,  and  this  they  begged  him 
very  earnestly  to  do,  although  it  was  small  and  produced  but 

*o  Donatello  died  in  1408.  His  poor  little  house,  "  Casetta,''''  was  on  the 
corner  of  the  Via  dell'  Orivolo,  where  the  Palazzo  Riccardi  (formerly  Giiada- 
gni)  now  stands.  His  workshop  was  on  the  Piazza  del  Duomo,  in  the  house 
at  present  numbered  21.  In  May,  18S7,  Florence  celebrated  the  fifth  cente- 
nary of  Donatello's  birth  by  a  grand  historical  cavalcade  (at  the  same  time 
that  she  unveiled  the  new  facade  of  the  cathedral).  This  cavalcade  was  an 
astonishing  evidence  of  the  vitality  of  the  old  Italian  families.  Dozens  of  the 
names  of  Florentine  houses  which  occur  in  the  pages  of  Vasari  were  to  be 
found  upon  the  programme  of  the  day's  celebration.  Alberti,  Strozzi,  Ru- 
cellai,  Ridolfi,  Torrigiani,  Guicciardini,  Froscobaldi,  Gherardesche,  Pazzi, 
Capponi,  Altoviti,  Cerchi,  Rossi,  Martolli,  Peruzzi,  and  many  others  rode  in 
the  ranks  of  the  procession.  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  festival,  with  il- 
lustrations, see  U lllustrazione  Italiana^  May  8,  1887, 


332 


DONATO 


a  very  little  income.  Hearing  this  Donato,  who  showed 
good  sense  and  rectitude  in  all  that  he  did,  replied  thus, 
I  cannot  content  you  in  this  matter,  kinsmen,  because  I 
resolve — and  it  appears  to  me  reasonable — to  leave  the  farm 
to  the  countryman  who  has  always  tilled  it,  and  who  has 
bestowed  great  labour  on  it ;  not  to  you,  who,  without  ever 
having  done  anything  useful  for  it,  or  any  other  thing  but 
thought  of  obtaining  it,  now  come,  with  this  visit  of  yours, 
desiring  that  I  should  leave  it  to  you  :  Go  !  and  the  Lord 
be  with  you."  And  of  a  truth  such  relations,  who  have  no 
affection  but  to  their  own  interests,  and  no  motive  of  action 
but  the  hope  of  gain,  should  always  be  treated  in  that  man- 
ner. Donate,  therefore,  having  caused  a  notary  to  be  sum- 
moned, left  the  said  farm  to  the  labourer  who  had  always 
tilled  it,  and  who  had  perhaps  behaved  better  towards  him 
in  his  need  than  those  relations  had  done.  His  posses- 
sions connected  with  art  were  left  to  his  disciples,  who  were 
Bertoldo,  a  Florentine  sculptor,  who  imitated  him  pretty 
closely,  as  may  be  seen  from  a  battle,  in  bronze,  between 
men  on  horseback ;  a  very  beautiful  work,  now  in  the 
guardaroba  of  the  signor  duke  Cosimo  ;  Nanni  d' Antonio  di 
Banco,  who  died  before  him  ;  Rossellino,  Desiderio,  and 
Vellano  of  Padua  ;  but  it  may  indeed  be  affirmed,  that  all 
those  have  been  his  disciples  who,  since  his  death,  have  de- 
sired to  work  successfully  in  relief.  The  drawings  of 
Donate  are  extremely  bold,  and  his  designs  evince  a  facility 
and  freedom  which  have  no  equal,  as  may  be  seen  in  my 
book  of  drawings,  where  I  have  figures  clothed  and  naked, 
drawn  by  the  hand  of  this  master,  with  some  of  animals, 
which  astonish  all  who  see  them;  and  many  other  extremely 
beautiful  things.  The  portrait  of  Donate  was  executed  by 
Paolo  Uccello,  as  has  been  related  in  the  life  of  the  latter. 
The  epitaphs  are  as  follows  : 

"  Sculptura  H.  M.  a  Florentinis  fieri  voluit  Donatello,  utpote 
homini,  qui  ei,  quod  jamdiu  optimis  artificibus,  multisque  saeculis, 
turn  nobilitatis  turn  nominis  acquisitum  fuerat,  injuriave  tempor, 


DONATO 


333 


perdiderat  ipsa,  ipse  unas,  una  vita,  infinitisque  operibus  cumu- 
latiss,  restituerit :  et  patriae  benemerenti  hujus  restitutae  virtutis 
palmam  reportarit."  * 


"  Excudit  nemo  spirantia  mollius  aera 
Vera  cauo  :  cernes  marmora  viva  loqui 

Grsecorum  sileat  prisca  admirabilis  setas 
Compedibus  statuas  continuisse  Rhodon. 

Nectere  namque  magis  fuerant  hsec  vincula  digna 
Istius  egregias  artificis  statuas." 


"  Quanto  con  dotta  mano  alia  scultura 

Gia  fecer  molti,  or  sol  Donato  ha  fatto : 
Renduta  f  ha  vita  a'  marmi,  affecto  ed  atto : 
Ohe  piu,  se  non  parlar,  puo  dar  natura  ?  " 

Donato  left  the  world  so  well  fnrnished  with  his  works, 
that  we  may  with  truth  affirm,  no  artist  to  have  worked 
more  than  he  did.  Finding  pleasure  in  every  branch  of  his 
art,  he  put  his  hand  to  every  kind  of  work  without  con- 
sidering whether  it  were  of  little  importance  or  high  value  : 
but  this  multifarious  action  of  Donato  in  every  kind  of  re- 
lief, whether  alto,  mezzo,  basso,  or  bassissimo,  was  without 
doubt  exceedingly  serviceable  to  sculpture,  seeing  that  as 
in  the  good  times  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  it  was 
by  the  number  of  masters  that  the  art  was  brought  to  per- 
fection, so  it  was  by  the  vast  amount  of  his  labours  that 
Donato  alone  sufficed  to  restore  it  to  the  admirable  and 
perfect  condition  wherein  we  see  it  in  our  day.  For  this 
cause  artists  are  more  deeply  indebted  to  him,  than  to  any 
other  man  born  in  modern  times,  for  the  grandeur  of  this 
art ;  since  he  not  only  rendered  the  difficulties  of  the 
art  less  formidable,  by  the  immense  variety  of  his  works, 
but  also  because  he  combined,  in  his  own  person,  the  in- 

*  In  the  Milanese  edition  the  fourth  word  of  the  fourth  line  is  written  unuSy 
and  the  first  word  of  the  sixth  line  is  written  pa^ma. 
t  Read  lienduto. 


334 


DONATO 


vention,  judgment,  practice,  power  of  design,  and  every 
other  quality  that  can,  or  ought  to  be,  ever  expected  from 
the  most  sublime  genius.  Donato  was  extremely  bold  and 
resolute,  executing  whatever  he  undertook  with  extraor- 
dinary facility,  and  constantly  performing  much  more  than 
he  had  promised. 

The  completion  of  almost  all  his  works  was  left  to  his  dis- 
ciple Bertoldo,  but  more  particularly  the  bronze  pulpits  of 
San  Lorenzo,  which  were  eventually  finished  in  great  part 
by  his  hand,  and  brought  to  the  state  in  which  we  now  see 
them  in  that  church. 

«i  Piero  de'  Medici  had  given  Donatello  the  right  to  a  tomb  in  this  church,  as 
we  learn  from  a  description  of  the  sepulchres  of  the  crypt  made  in  1463  by  the 
Prior  Piero  Betti,  cited  by  Manni.  The  burial-place  of  Donatello  was,  in 
1547,  granted  to  the  family  of  the  Scalandrini. 

«2M.  Bug.  Miintz  in  his  life  of  Donatello  divided  his  career  into  four 
periods.  First,  his  period  of  absolute  realism,  1410  to  1425,  including  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  statues  for  the  Duomo  and  Campanile,  of  the  Magdalen  in  the 
Baptistery,  and  perhaps  of  the  Uzzano  bust  (not  mentioned  by  Vasari  and  now 
in  the  Bargello).  Second  period  :  When,  under  the  influence  of  Michelozzo, 
Donatello's  enthusiasm  becomes  tempered  and  disciplined.  The  third  period 
includes  the  trip  to  Rome,  the  influence  of  antiquity,  the  execution  of  the 
David,  the  Cupid,  and  of  the  Organ  Tribune.  The  fourth  period  comprises  the 
sojourn  in  Padua,  the  rupture  with  realism  and  increased  seeking  after  style. 

«3  Donatello  is  the  artists'  artist.  The  connoisseur  can  feel  the  vitality,  the 
power,  the  tire  shown  by  the  master,  but  only  the  trained  practitioner  can 
wholly  appreciate  the  skill  and  knowledge  which  have  directed  this  force  and 
made  this  power  manifest.  If  Michelangelo  be  the  greatest  genius  that  has 
held  chisel  and  brush  at  once,  Donatello  may  be  called  the  greatest  sculptor 
of  the  Renaissance,  since  he  is  the  genesis  even  of  Michelangelo.  To  make 
the  marble  live  was  Donatello's  first  care  ;  next  by  calculation,  judgment,  pon- 
deration  to  give  it  its  utmost  effect  in  relation  to  its  placing  and  its  distance. 
The  result  is  a  robustness,  a  sanity,  a  vitality,  which  have  made  his  art  a  well- 
spring  of  inspiration  to  lesser  men  who  have  found  room  to  soften  and  to 
change  and  to  lessen,  each  after  "his  own  manner,  and  yet  to  develop  into  in- 
dividual masters,  upon  the  lines  laid  down  by  the  great  pioneer.  In  his  fa- 
mous visit  to  Rome  with  Brunelleschi,  Donatello  "had  eyes  only  for  sculpt- 
ure." The  power  which  this  concentration  gave  to  the  sculptor  has  been 
recognized  by  Vasari  with  an  enthusiasm  which  makes  this  life  one 
of  the  author's  best.  Within  the  lines  of  his  own  art,  Donatello  gave 
the  word  to  the  sculptors  of  Italy.  Without  neglecting  the  art  of  relief,  in- 
deed while  excelling,  as  Vasari  tells  us,  in  high,  middle,  and  low  relief,  and 
while  counteracting  the  pictorial  tendencies  of  Ghiberti,  he  restored  the  statue 
in  the  round  to  a  place  of  honor  which  it  had  not  held  since  the  days  of  the 


DONATO 


335 


I  will  not  omit  to  mention,  that  the  most  learned  and 
very  reverend  Don  Vincenzo  Borghini,  of  whom  we  have 
before  spoken  in  relation  to  other  matters,  has  collected 
into  a  large  book,  innumerable  drawings  of  distinguished 
painters  and  sculptors,  ancient  as  well  as  modern,  and 
among  these  are  two  drawings  on  two  leaves  opposite  to 
each  other,  one  of  which  is  by  Donato,  and  the  other  by 
Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti.    On  these  he  has  with  much 

ancients,  showing  himeelf  as  revolutionist  in  his  marvellous  realistic  statues 
of  the  Campanile  and  Duomo,  as  devout  student  of  antiquity  in  his  medal- 
lions of  the  Medici  palace  and  his  Amorino  of  the  Bargello.  He  created  the 
first  great  equestrian  statue  of  the  Renaissance ;  by  his  stiacciato  reliefs  he 
showed  the  way  to  Pisanello  and  the  medallists  of  the  quattrocento  ;  together 
with  Michelozzo  (whose  important  architectural  part  must  not  be  underes- 
timated) he  inaugurated  the  type  of  the  mausoleum  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  he  added  the  Pictto  as  an  ever-delightful  element  to  the  decorative  art  of 
the  epoch,  or  if  here  he  was  not  absolutely  an  innovator  he  so  developed  his 
theme  that  he  became  the  poet  of  child-life.  His  only  limitation  seems  to  be 
in  the  choice  of  subject ;  he  celebrates  old  age,  middle  age,  and  infancy ; 
gnarled  and  rugged  old  age  in  his  prophets,  grand  and  serene  manhood  in  his 
St.  John  of  the  Duomo,  infancy  in  all  its  phases  from  the  roguishly  timid 
babies  who  shrink  backwards  as  if  frightened  upon  the  cornice  of  liis  An- 
nunciation in  Sta.  Croce,  through  the  thoughtful  children  of  his  portrait 
busts  to  the  inspired  and  emaciated  San  Giovannino  of  the  Martelli,  and 
again  to  Bacchanalian  Pntti^  who  girdle  the  pulpit  of  Prato  in  an  almost  de- 
lirious dance.  Rutin  all  this  he  finds  no  place  for  women  (since  his  Judith 
is  the  least  satisfactory  of  his  statues),  and  after  his  initial  work,  the  Annun- 
ciation, he  seemed  to  quite  forget  a  certain  kind  of  grace  that  is  purely  fem- 
inine and  to  banish  it  from  his  works,  readily  substituting  dramatic  expression 
for  beauty  and  not  disdaining  actual  ugliness  as  a  factor  in  the  production  of 
the  former.  M.  Miintz  has  noted  the  occasional  violence  and  inequality  of 
Donatello  and  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  artist  who  looked  only  at  man. 
' '  The  vegetable  world  meant  nothing  to  him,  and  among  the  lower  animals  he 
modelled  only  the  horse  and  the  lion  "  (except  in  such  minor  work  as  the  sym- 
bols of  the  Evangelists).  Ghiberti  and  Luca  della  Robbia  are  profoundly  im- 
bued with  Christian  sentiment  and  hold  in  better  balance  than  does  Donatello, 
the  study  of  nature  and  the  search  after  the  ideal.  They  represent  the  fif- 
teenth-century tendency  better  than  he  does  and  their  note  is  echoed  in  Desi- 
derio,Ro8sellino  Mino,  and  many  others  from  end  to  end  of  the  Renaissance. 
But  Donatello  is  the  great  sculptor^  admired  of  Michelangelo,  and  of  whom 
Cellini  says,  II  gran  Donatello  e  il  maraviglioso  Michelagnolo  quali  sono 
istati  dua  li  maggior  uomini  dagli  antichi  in  giU.^''  "  The  great  Donatello 
and  the  wonderful  Michelangelo  have  been  the  two  greatest  men  since  the 
ancients." 


336 


DONATO 


judgment  inscribed  the  two  Greek  mottos  which  follow  ;  on 
the  drawing  of  Donate,  ^^H  Aomros  BomppoTi^ct/^  and  on 
that  of  Michael  Angelo,  ^'H  Bovapporos  Aoi/art^ct,"  which  in 
Latin  run  thus  :  Aut  Donatus  Bonarrotum  exprimit  et  re- 
ferty  aut  Bonarrotus  Donatum  ;  and  in  our  language  they 
mean,  Either  the  spirit  of  Donato  worked  in  Buonarroti, 
or  that  of  Buonarroti  first  acted  in  Donato/' 


Ei^D  OF  Volume  L 


4 


